RELATIONS   OF   SCIENCE   AND 
RELIGION. 


fflntform  fottfj  tJjfe  Uolume* 


I.  NATURE  AND  THE  BIBLE. 

A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Morse  Foundation  of  the  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  by  J.  W.  DAWSON,  LL.D.  I2mo.  $1.75. 

"  Professor  Dawson  discusses  his  topic  from  the  various  standpoints  of  a  student 
of  nature,  not  from  the  single  standpoint  which  has  mostly  been  occupied  by  theo- 
logians. The  book  is  not  a  partisan  publication.  It  will  be  found  by  those  op- 
posed to  be  perfectly  candid  and  fair,  admitting  difficulties  in  their  full  force,  and 
not  seeking  to  evade,  misinterpret,  or  exaggerate  any  fact  or  argument." — In- 
terior. 


II.  CHRISTIANITY  AND  POSITIVISM. 

A  Series  of  Lectures  to  the  Times  on  Natural  Theology  and  Apolo- 
getics. By  JAMES  McCosH,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  Princeton 
College.  I2mo.  $1.75. 

"  This  book  grapples  directly  with  the  vital  questions.  Every  reader  must  ad- 
mire its  fairness.  It  is  all  the  better  adapted  to  popular  reading  from  having  been 
written  to  be  delivered  to  an  audience.  Indeed,  the  thinking  is  generally  so  clear, 
and  the  style  so  animated  and  luminous,  that  any  person  of  average  intelligence 
and  culture  may  understand  and  enjoy  the  discussion;  and  no  such  person  who 
has  begun  to  read  the  work  will  be  likely  to  rest  satisfied  till  he  has  finished  it. 
It  is  in  some  parts  eloquent  and  beautiful,  and  is  throughout  forcible  and  effective 
for  its  end.  Would  that  thousands  of  the  young  people  of  our  country,  and  of  all 
classes  whose  faith  may  be  in  peril,  might  read  it  with  the  attention  it  deserves." 
Independent. 

III.  CHRISTIANITY  AND  SCIENCE. 

A  Series  of  Lectures.  By  Rev.  A.  P.  PEABODY,  D.D.,  of  Harvard 
College.  $1.75. 

"  One  of  the  best  books  we  have  read  in  a  long  time, — a  manly,  candid,  noble, 
reasonable  defence  of  the  Christian  faith.  We  do  not  see  how  any  thoughtful 
person  can  read  it  in  vain.  Dr.  Peabody  plants  himself  fairly  on  the  very  postu- 
lates of  scientific  men,  and  proceeds  to  show  how  all  that  they  claim  for  true  sci- 
ence is  fulfilled  in  the  religion  of  Jesus." — Illustrated  Christian  Weekly. 


ROBERT  CARTER  AND  BROTHERS. 


THE    RELATIONS 


SCIENCE  AND  RELIGION, 


JHorse  3Eectitre,  1880, 


CONNECTED   WITH  THE  UNION  THEOLOGICAL 
SEMINARY,  NEW  YORK. 


HENRY  CALDERWOOD,   LL.D., 

FROFESSOR  OF   MORAL  PHILOSOPHY,   UNIVERSITY   OF  EDINBURGH.  AUTHOR 
OF  "RELATIONS    OF   MIND   AND    BRAIN,"  ETC. 


V 


NEW  YORK: 

ROBERT   CARTER   &   BROTHERS, 
530  BROADWAY. 

1881. 


Copyright,   1881, 
Bv  ROBERT  CARTER  &  BROTHER* 


CAMBRIDGE:  ST.  JOHNLAND 

PRESS  OF  STEREOTYPE  FOUNDRY 

JOHN    WILSON    AND   SON.  SUFFOLK   CO.,    N.   Y. 


EXTRACT  FROM  THE  DEED   OF  TRUST,  ES- 
TABLISHING THE  MORSE  LECTURESHIP. 

"THE  general  subject  of  the  Lectures,  I  desire 
to  be: 

"  The  relation  of  the  Bible  to  any  of  the  Sciences, 
as  Geography,  Geology,  History,  and  Ethnology,  the 
vindication  of  the  inspiration  and  authenticity  of  the 
Bible,  against  attacks  made  on  scientific  grounds, 
and  the  relation  of  the  facts  and  truths  contained 
in  the  Word  of  God,  to  the  principles,  methods  and 
aims  of  any  of  the  Sciences. 

"  Upon  one  or  more  of  these  topics  a  course  of  ten 
public  Lectures  shall  be  given  at  least  once  in  two  or 
three  years,  by  a  Lecturer,  ordinarily  to  be  chosen  two 
years  in  advance  of  the  time  for  delivering  of  the 
Lectures. 

"  The  appointment  of  the  Lecturer  shall  be  by  the 
concurrent  action  of  the  Founder  of  the  Lectureship, 
during  his  life,  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  the  faculty 
of  said  Seminary. 


vi  EXTRACT  FROM  DEED   OF  TRUST. 

"  The  funds  shall  be  securely  invested,  and  the  in- 
terest of  the  same  shall  be  devoted  to  the  payment  of 
the  Lecturer,  and  to  the  publication  of  the  Lectures 
within  a  year  after  the  delivery  of  the  same. 

"  The  copyright  of  the  Lectures  shall  be  vested  in 
the  Seminary." 

(Signed)          SAMUEL  F.  B.  MORSE. 


PREFACE. 


THE  aim  of  the  present  volume  is  to  indicate  the 
measure  of  harmony  traceable  between  recent  ad- 
vances in  science,  and  the  fundamental  character- 
istics of  religious  thought,  and  the  extent  to  which 
harmony  is  possible.  This  attempt  has  been  made 
in  the  hope  of  contributing  towards  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  relative  positions  of  scientists 
and  theologians,  thereby  aiding  the  formation  of 
public  opinion  on  questions  appearing  to  inrolve 
serious  antagonism. 

The  plan  followed  is  to  bring  under  review  the 
great  fields  of  scientific  inquiry,  advancing  from 
unorganized  existence  to  Man ;  to  present  the  most 
recent  results  of  research  in  these  separate  fields, 
without  extending  to  minute  details;  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, to  allow  scientific  observers  to  state  results 
in  their  own  words ;  and  then  to  examine  carefully 
the  reasonings  deduced  from  ascertained  facts,  and 
the  bearing  of  facts  and  inferences  on  religious 
thought. 

The  general  result  is  that  marked  modifications 
of  thought  concerning  the  structure  and  order  of 
the  universe  have  arisen  on  account  of  scientific 
discoveries,  to  be  accepted  by  theologians,  as  by 


Viu  PREFACE. 

all  thinkers;  that  the  bearing  of  these  modifica- 
tions on  religious  conceptions  has  been  greatly 
mistaken  by  many  scientific  observers;  and  that 
it  must  be  held  clear  by  scientists  and  theologians 
alike,  that  while  scientific  methods  are  reliable 
within  their  own  spheres,  science  can  bear  no  tes- 
timony, and  can  offer  no  criticism,  as  to  the  super- 
natural, inasmuch  as  science  is  only  an  explanation 
of  ascertained  facts  by  recognition  of  natural  law. 
In  accordance  with  this  last  statement,  it  is  main- 
tained, that  science  does  not  reach,  far  less  deal 
with,  the  problem  concerning  the  origin  of  Nature, 
the  solution  of  which  can  be  found  only  by  tran- 
scending Nature,  that  is,  by  recognizing  the  su- 
pernatural. 

In  the  course  followed  I  believe  the  purpose  of 
the  eminent  Physicist  who  founded  the  lecture,  has 
been  rigidly  kept  in  view. 

I  desire  here  to  express  to  the  President  and  Pro- 
fessors of  Union  Theological  Seminary,  my  sense 
of  their  great  kindness  while  I  delivered  the  course 
of  lectures  in  New  York,  and  specially  for  so  ar- 
ranging as  to  allow  of  including  the  full  course 
within  eight  lectures, — a  form  which  has  been  re- 
tained in  publication. 

I  have  also  to  express  my  thanks  for  the  kind 
manner  in  which  these  lectures  were  received  in 
Edinburgh,  where,  with  the  exception  of  the  two 
first,  the  course  was,  by  request,  redelivered. 

H.  C. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  EDINBURGH, 
January  jrst,  r88 1. 


CONTENTS: 


LECTUKE  L 
CONDITIONS  OP  THE  INQTJIBY. 

(^Advantages  resulting  from  recent  advances  in  physical  sci- 
ence— Advance  does  not  unsettle  the  whole  mass  of  con- 
viction—Religion  and  science  agree  in  seeking  a  rational 
basis,  and  both  present  a  body  of  harmonized  conceptions 
— Diversity  of  view  is  to  be  expected  in  both  spheres — 
Needless  anxiety  as  to  alleged  conflict  between  science  and 
religion — The  first  requisite  is  to  trace  the  boundaries  of 
the  two  departments  of  thought — Description  of  religion, 
natural  and  revealed— Description  of  science^its  method 
and  sphere-fCommon  starting  ground  for  both — Each 
supplies  inducement  for  seeking  a  harmony 9 

LECTUEE  H. 

EXPEBIENCB  GATHEBED  FROM  PAST    CONFLICTS. 

Value  of  the  lessons  from  past  failures — Discussions  as  to 
"spontaneous  generation" — Range  of  experiments  and 
mode  of  conducting  them— Difficulties  in  excluding  ger- 
minal forms,  and  in  determining  the  temperature  at  which 
their  destruction  was  ensured— Hopefulness  awakened  by 
earlier  investigations — Acknowledged  failure  as  the  result 
of  more  rigid  tests— Conclusions  of  Pasteur,  Roberts,  Tyn- 
dall — Close  of  the  discussion  as  maintained  by  Bastian — 
Dr.  Draper's  ' '  History  of  the  Conflict  between  Religion  and 


X  CONTENTS. 

Science  " — Objections  to  the  plan  of  the  book— Misleading 
representations  of  conflict — Alleged  scriptural  view  of  the 
nature  of  the  world,  incapable  of  vindication — The  Bible 
not  a  book  of  science,  but  a  revelation  of  the  way  of  de- 
liverance for  sinful  man 43 

4 

LECTURE  IH 

INORGANIC  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  UNIVERSE. 

Two  forms  of  existence  to  be  recognized— Matter  and  Energy 
— Distinction  of  the  two  —  Tait  on  energy — MATTER — 
Its  indestructibility  and  uncreatability  by  any  process  at 
the  command  of  man — The  atomic  theory  as  related  to  the 
divisibility  and  compressibility  of  matter — Scientific  belief, 
as  analogous  to  theologic— ENERGY— Perpetual  change  in 
form  and  distribution  of  materials — Position,  motion,  and 
force — Transmutation  or  conversion  of  energy — Conserva- 
tion of  Energy — Deterioration  and  dissipation  of  energy 
— Heat  as  a  form  of  motion— Results  of  scientific  research 
are  such  as  to  support  religious  thought  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  world— The  changeable  can  not  be  the  eter- 
nal— Science  here  reaches  its  ultimatum  as  to  the  structure 
of  the  world,  and  gives  all  the  support  possible  to  the 
reality  of  the  supernatural 82 

LECTURE  IV. 
ORGANIZED  EXISTENCE.    LIFE  AND  ITS  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  new  problem — Origin  of  life,  relation  of  the  organized 
to  the  unorganized— Origin  of  species— Darwin's  theory  of 
evolution  by  natural  selection — Characteristics  of  life — The 
prominent  features  of  Mr.  Darwin's  theory — Power  of 
adaptability  to  environment  inherent  in  organism — His- 
tory of  the  steps  by  which  the  author  was  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  his  theory — Wallace's  "Contributions" — Darwin's 
acknowledgment  that  science  does  not  favor  the  belief 
that  living  creatures  are  produced  from  inorganic  matter 


CONTENTS.  li 

— Admission  of  creation  of  life — Favorable  impression 
made  by  the  theory — Common  ancestry  of  allied  species — 
Kejection  of  fixedness  of  species— Difficulties  which  beset 
the  theory — All  change  does  not  indicate  progress — Diffi- 
culty connected  with  the  early  stages  of  evolution — Per- 
sistence of  species 119 

LECTURE  V. 

EEIATIONS  OF  LOWER  AND  HIGHER  ORGANISMS. 

Fertilization  of  flowering  plants — Relation  of  pollen  to  the 
seed  vessels— Need  for  transference  of  pollen — Means  to 
prevent  self-fertilization — Relation  between  animal  life  and 
vegetable — Search  for  honey  by  bees  and  other  insects — 
Bearing  the  pollen  to  distant  flowers — Distribution  of  work 
among  insects  and.  birds — Evidence  of  adaptation — Inter- 
dependence of  lower  and  higher  organisms — ANTS — Their 
exclusion  from  certain  flowers — Their  work,  perseverance, 
intelligence,  slave-holding,  extracting  honey  from  other 
insects,  constructing  bridges 162 

LECTURE  VL 

HIGHER  ORGANISMS; — RESEMBLANCES  AND  CONTRASTS. 

Sensibility  and  motor  activity  characteristic  of  animal  life — 
Both  uniformly  provided  for  by  identical  arrangements  of 
nerve  system — Two  distinct  lines  of  nerve  fibre  combined 
in  a  nerve  centre — Structure  of  nerve  fibre — Isolation — 
Combination — Brain  structure — White  matter,  and  grey 
—Subdivisions  of  the  organ — Complexity  of  brain  struc- 
ture according  to  complexity  of  organism— Brain  in  in- 
sects, fishes,  reptiles,  smaller  quadrupeds,  larger  quadru- 
peds, monkeys,  apes,  man — Close  resemblance  of  the  brain 
of  the  ape  to  the  human  brain — Researches  as  to  brain 
fraction  by  means  of  electric  excitation  of  the  organ — 
Fritsch  and  Hitzig — Ferrier — Identification  of  sensory 
and  of  motor  centres — Silence  of  front  and  back  regions 
— Confirmatory  evidence  from  brain  diseases 204 


jrii  CONTENTS. 

LECTURE  vn. 

MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE  WOBLD. 

Human  organism  modelled  on  the  same  plan  as  lower  organ- 
isms—Prevailing opinion  opposes  an  attempt  to  refer  all 
human  activity  to  organism — Religious  thought  not  di- 
rectly involved — Science  must  include  the  study  of  hu- 
man life — Science  by  discovery  of  the  structure  and  func- 
tions of  the  nerve  system  has  explained  many  phases  of 
action  formerly  regarded  as  voluntary — The  contrast  re- 
mains between  muscular  action  and  human  conduct — 
Acquired  aptitudes  —  Intellectual  superiority  —  Haeckel's 
suggestion  of  "mind  cells" — Adverse  evidence — Nerve 
cells,  varied  sizes,  the  largest  found  in  the  spinal  canal,  as 
well  as  in  the  brain — Government  of  human  conduct — 
Man's  application  of  a  higher  law — Benevolence,  as  an 
illustration — Contrast  with  struggle  for  existence — Man's 
ideal  law,  constituting  the  ought  in  human  conduct 239 

LECTURE  VUL 
DIVINE  iNTEBposmoN  FOB  MOBAL  GOVEBNMENT. 

Summary  of  recent  scientific  conclusions  with  which  relig- 
ious thought  is  to  be  harmonized — Religious  conceptions 
as  to  divine  interposition,  in  their  relation  to  fixed  law — 
MIRACLE— Its  place  as  evidence  for  the  Messiahship  of  Je- 
sus Christ — Credibility  of  miracles— Our  Saviour's  mir- 
acles— Their  benevolent  purpose  as  bearing  on  their  evi- 
dential value  —  How  related  to  the  laws  of  nature — 
Incapable  of  explanation  by  these  laws — They  do  not 
conflict  with  these  laws  in  any  intelligible  sense — Mean- 
ing of  the  old  formula,  "  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  nature" 
— Importance  of  the  scientific  position  that  violation  of 
natural  law  is  inconsistent  with  our  knowledge  of  the 
government  of  the  world— Method  and  result  in  miracle- 
working,  as  related  to  natural  law — Explanation  of  the  an- 
tagonism of  scientific  thought  to  the  conception  of  miracle 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

— PRAYEB — How  its  answer  stands  related  to  natural  law 
— The  cruder  thoughts  concerning  the  province  of  prayer 
— All  law,  fixed  law,  whether  physical,  intellectual,  or  mor» 
al — These  laws  a  harmony — It  is  in  recognition  of  this, 
with  subordination  of  physical  to  moral,  that  the  spirit  of 
prayer  lives — Fixed  law  is  concerned  with  varying  condi- 
tions, and  with  varying  results — Interpretation  of  "fixed 
law  " — Dependence  of  physical  results  on  moral  action — 
That  there  are  two  spheres  is  no  help  out  of  difficulty — 
Nothing  in  scientific  teaching  to  warrant  denial  of  the  doc- 
trine that  God  interposes  for  moral  ends — Warrant  for 
prayer  rests  on  a  divine  promise,  involving  moral  condi- 
tions—To ask  evidence  of  its  answer,  irrespective  of  these 
conditions,  is  to  seek  evidence  in  neglect  of  that  which  is 
essential  for  the  result — The  answer  of  prayer  must  be  in 
all  cases  more  an  evidence  of  divine  righteousness  than  it 
is  of  divine  power 275 


APPENDIX. 

I.  Belations  of  Science  and  Keligion 313 

IL  Spontaneous  Generation 313 

ILL  Energy  and  Force 314 

IV.  All  Organized  Existence  is  Constructed  on  a  Common 

Plan 314 

V.  Embryology 316 

VI.  Non-advancement  of  Lower  Orders 319 

VII.  Protoplasm 319 

VIIL  Number  of  Species  of  Insects 320 

IX.  Fertilization  of  Flowers  by  Insects 320 

X.  Ants 320 

XL  Likeness  of  the  Ape's  Brain  to  the  Human  Brain 321 

XII.  The  Large  Sized  or  Multipolar  Cells 322 

The  Conception  of  Duty 323 


RELATIONS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  RELIGION. 


LECTURE  I. 

CONDITIONS  OF  THE  INQUIBY. 

A  MONGr  the  many  advantages  enjoyed  by 
the  present  generation,  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  is  that  arising  from  the  large  ad- 
vance made  in  physical  science.  The  high 
value  of  this  is  apparent  from  whatever  stand- 
point it  is  regarded.  The  vastly  wider  range 
of  knowledge,  the  increase  of  appliances  for 
inquiry,  the  greater  facilities  for  work  of  all 
kinds,  the  freer  intercommunion  of  all  the 
divisions  of  our  race,  and  the  greater  altitude 
from  which  the  whole  realm  of  existence  can 
be  contemplated;  all  these  involve  an  immense 
gain  for  the  present  century. 

With  these  advantages,  however,  there 
comes  the  difficulty  of  using  them  aright,  a 
difficulty  which  we  may  expect  to  be  great- 
er when  we  are  dealing  with  wider  and  more 
general  aspects  of  existence,  than  when  we 


10  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

are  concerned  with  more  restricted  ranges  of 
knowledge.  It  may  be  a  much  easier  thing 
to  state  precisely  how  recent  advances  have 
affected  a  particular  branch  of  science,  such 
as  astronomy  or  geology,  than  to  say  how 
they  bear  upon  the  general  conception  of  the 
universe.  Yet,  while  the  latter  is  the  more 
difficult  question,  it  is  that  with  which  men 
generally  must  be  more  concerned.  Only  a 
very  limited  number  of  men  can  belong  to  the 
ranks  of  specialists  devoted  to  a  single  branch 
of  science.  All  men,  specialists  as  well  as 
others,  are  concerned  with  the  wider  question 
as  to  the  true  conception  of  the  universe,  and 
the  bearing  it  has  on  human  life  and  destiny. 
It  is  impossible  to  imagine  that  marked  ad- 
vance can  be  made  in  any  of  the  sciences, 
without  its  having  some  bearing  on  the  more 
general  problem  in  which  all  men  are  prac- 
tically interested.  Each  specialist  perceives 
this  more  or  less  clearly  as  he  is  working  out 
the  result  of  complicated  observations  or  calcu- 
lations. The  public  mind  may  be  said  rather 
to  feel  that  some  modification  of  common  be- 
lief is  taking  place,  while  there  is  great  un- 
certainty as  to  the  actual  change.  What  gives 
a  sense  of  security  to  the  general  conviction 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  11 

of  educated  men  is  that  all  increase  of  know- 
ledge is  clear  gain,  and  that  all  advance  is  se- 
cured on  familiar  and  well-tried  lines.  Pro- 
gress is  transition,  and  in  a  sense  unsettling; 
but  it  is  also  accumulation,  and  thus  in  a 
more  enduring  sense,  consolidating.  Fresh 
observation  in  some  one  department  of  re- 
search does  not  overthrow  all  that  was 
credited  previously.  It  extends  the  area  of 
knowledge,  or  carries  us  into  a  more  minute 
acquaintance  with  particulars,  and  only  in  a 
restricted  way  modifies  accepted  positions,  by 
introducing  relations  formerly  unrecognized. 
Thus,  progress  in  a  particular  science  does 
not  unsettle  scientific  belief. 

In  a  manner  exactly  analogous,  because 
resting  on  the  same  intellectual  conditions, 
the  combined  advance  of  the  whole  order  of 
sciences  does  not  unsettle  the  mass  of  con- 
viction belonging  to  instructed  and  ordinarily 
reflective  men.  It  must,  indeed,  modify  the 
form  of  general  conviction,  as  it  quickens  in- 
tellectual interest,  for  the  public  mind  re- 
ceives, not  reluctantly  but  gladly,  additional 
results  gathered  under  carefully  tested  sci- 
entific methods.  This  is  nothing  more  than 
saying,  that  love  of  truth,  and  submission  to 


12  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

the  laws  of  evidence,  are  characteristic  of  all 
disciplined  intelligence.  Scientific  inquirers 
are  the  trained  instructors  of  the  race,  and 
others  receive  what  they  communicate,  with 
true  sense  of  its  abiding  worth.  At  the  same 
time,  such  inquirers  work  from  an  intellectual 
basis  which  is  common  to  all,  finding  applica- 
tion in  all  fields  of  activity.  Upon  that  basis 
all  men  lean  as  they  shape  and  regulate  their 
life,  finding  themselves  involved  in  disaster, 
or  confirmed  in  a  wise  course,  according  as 
they  are  partial  or  thorough  in  their  adher- 
ence to  the  conditions  of  rational  life.  As  the 
mass  of  human  interests  can  not  be  isolated 
from  the  results  discovered  in  the  path  of 
advancing  science;  so  neither  can  any  form 
of  inquiry  be  separated  from  the  conditions 
which  are  common  to  all  intellectual  life, 
including  even  the  least  cultivated.  So  it 
happens  that  the  race  as  a  whole  has  a  clear 
share  in  all  the  products  of  science,  such  as 
it  has  not  in  the  products  of  industry.  Ra- 
tional conditions  provide  for  a  community 
of  interest  in  intellectual  work  and  results, 
greater  than  can  be  approached  by  all  the 
value  of  material  production. 

These  few  general  and  very  obvious  con- 


CONDITIONS   OF   THE   INQUIRY.  13 


siderations  bring  us  into  direct  line  with  the 
relations  of  religion  and  science.  Religion 
has  a  rational  basis,  as  the  condition  of  its 
practical  worth.  It  takes  its  start  from  that 
common  intellectual  basis,  which  affords  to 
science  its  essential  conditions.  Religion  and 
science  are  exactly  alike  in  these  respects, 
that  both  present  a  body  of  harmonized  con- 
ceptions, a  clearly  defined  circle  of  intelligi- 
ble statements,  and  both  have  a  definite  bear- 
ing on  human  action.  Their  practical  value 
depends  upon  conformity  with  the  common 
requirements  of  intelligence,  and  harmony 
with  recognized  fact.  I  place  this  declara- 
tion in  the  foreground  of  the  present  discus- 
sion, not  only  as  a  clear  avowal  of  the  foot- 
ing on  which  religion  presents  its  claims  to 
acceptance,  but  more  especially  as  a  distinct 
and  broad  acknowledgment  that  the  whole 
range  of  tests  afforded  by  the  entire  circle 
of  the  sciences  is  legitimately  applied  to  re- 
ligion; and  is  to  be  deliberately  met. 

The  object  of  the  present  course  of  lectures 
is  to  consider  the  relations  of  science  to  the 
Christian  religion,  as  authoritatively  revealed 
in  the  Bible,  and  as  understood  and  accepted 
by  those  who  profess  themselves  Christians,  in 


14  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

grateful  acknowledgment  of  what  the  Scrip- 
tures declare.  The  relations  now  to  be  dealt 
with  are  those  subsisting  between  religion  as 
presented  in  the  Bible,  (which  is  in  the  hands 
of  all,  to  be  examined  and  dealt  with  by  sci- 
entific inquirers),  and  science  as  presented  to 
us  in  the  present  day,  for  the  acceptance  of 
all.  The  claim  to  universal  acceptance  found 
here  on  both  sides,  is  that  which  gives  special 
interest  and  true  logical  importance  to  the 
problem.  Christianity  professes  to  discover 
a  religion  to  be  accepted  of  all  men,  and  a 
practice  to  be  observed  by  all:  science  pro- 
fesses to  give  an  account  of  the  state  of  things 
around  us  in  the  world,  to  be  accepted  by  all, 
and  acknowledged  in  practice  if  men  would 
adapt  themselves  to  the  natural  conditions  of 
their  life.  This  claim  to  universal  acceptance 
is  not  affected  on  either  side  by  the  fact  that 
diversities  of  interpretation  and  application 
emerge  among  the  upholders  of  Christianity, 
and  the  expounders  of  science.  Such  diver- 
sities are  well  known  to  exist  in  both  spheres 
of  thought.  It  needs  to  be  recognized  at  all 
times,  and  prominently  stated  in  such  a  dis- 
cussion as  the  present,  that  under  the  condi- 
tions determining  the  attainment  of  know- 


CONDITIONS   OF   THE   INQUIRY.  15 

ledge,  there  must  be  diversity  of  opinion. 
Indeed,  the  wider  the  area  of  acquired  truth, 
the  more  extensive  becomes  the  field  of  pos- 
sible differences,  both  in  respect  of  what  is 
involved  under  conclusions  already  reached, 
and  of  what  may  transcend  the  boundaries  of 
present  knowledge.  It  is,  therefore,  no  mar- 
vel that  there  is  large  diversity  of  opinion 
among  scientific  men,  on  many  problems  aris- 
ing out  of  universally  accepted  positions.  It 
is  only  by  the  same  necessity  that  there  is 
diversity  of  opinion  on  matters  of  religion. 
The  materials  of  study  are  set  before  us  in 
the  mass,  and  our  knowledge  is  to  be  ob- 
tained by  the  slow  processes  of  intellectual 
procedure,  in  accordance  with  which  some 
things  become  clear,  while  many  more  re- 
main obscure.  Whether  we  are  dealing  with 
book  knowledge,  or  with  knowledge  obtained 
by  direct  observation  of  existing  things,  does 
not  affect  this  matter.  The  intellectual  con- 
ditions are  the  same  in  both  cases,  and  it  is 
from  exactly  the  same  intellectual  source  that 
inevitable  conflict  of  opinion  arises. 

The  simple  and  obvious  truth  is  that  there 
can  be  no  field  of  human  inquiry  in  which 
diversity  of  opinion  can  be  avoided,  for  two 


16  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

reasons,  that  all  knowledge  possessed  by  us 
is  incomplete,  and  active  intelligence  can  not 
rest  in  the  incomplete.  Neither  science  nor 
theology  can  afford  to  dispense  with  hypoth- 
esis, that  is  conjecture,  and  where  conjecture 
is,  there  is  a  wide  region  for  devious  wander- 
ing. Conjecture  means  inquiry  into  the  un- 
known, and  this  is  essential  to  intellectual  life, 
equally  necessary  for  science  and  religion,  and 
accordingly  diversity  of  opinion  is  inevitable 
in  the  history  of  both,  as  in  the  history  of  all 
forms  of  human  activity.  In  every  region  of 
human  knowledge  there  is  a  realm  of  the  cer- 
tain, and  another  of  the  uncertain,  and  accord- 
ingly there  is  diversity  of  opinion  and  convic- 
tion. Occasionally,  in  controversial  writing, 
it  is  suggested  that  there  is  greater  diversity 
of  view  in  matters  religious,  than  in  matters 
scientific;  and  it  is  implied  that  such  diversity 
is  a  reasonable  ground  of  reproach.  Both  al- 
legations are  at  fault,  and  the  error  arises 
from  want  of  observation,  involving  imperfect 
acquaintance  with  the  facts.  Religion  as  it  is 
concerned  with  the  life  of  man  himself,  and 
is  the  subject  of  interest  to  all,  has  not  only 
its  common  positions  generally  recognized,  but 
also  many  of  its  phases  of  conflicting  thought. 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE   INQUIRY.  17 

Science,  as  it  is  beyond  the  range  of  the  great 
majority  as  a  subject  of  personal  research,  and 
within  reach  of  only  a  limited  number  as 
a  subject  even  of  book  knowledge,  has  its 
questions  of  conflict  concealed  to  some  extent 
from  the  public  view.  But,  even  moderate 
acquaintance  with  science  makes  us  aware  of 
the  fact  that  there  is  conflict  of  opinion  in 
every  region  of  inquiry.  Indeed  it  should  be 
alien  to  the  reflective  observer,  to  marvel  at 
the  discovery  of  diversity  of  thought  in  any 
region,  or  to  make  its  existence  a  ground  for 
adverse  criticism.  Commonly  accepted  con- 
clusions must  afford  the  basis  for  competent 
criticism,  whatever  be  the  field  of  inquiry 
brought  under  review ;  diversity  of  opinion 
beyond  and  around  these,  must  be  accepted 
as  the  uniform  attendant  of  human  know- 
ledge, indicating  at  once  the  provision  for  in- 
tellectual progress  and  the  inducement  to  it. 
Thus,  on  grounds  indisputable  from  a  scien- 
tific basis,  we  escape  the  need  for  vindicating 
religion  from  the  charge  of  having  its  claims 
to  rational  homage  weakened,  by  the  diver- 
sity of  opinion  found  within  the  boundaries 
of  religious  thought.  Such  diversity  is  in 
strict  accordance  with  familiar  facts  connected 


18  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

with  every  branch  of  science.  Whatever  may 
be  said  of  the  strong  and  paradoxical,  because 
one-sided,  utterance  of  Lessing,*  it  must  be 
manifest  that  in  all  directions  we  are  of  ne- 
cessity searchers  after  truth,  and  it  is  in  such 
circumstances  an  intellectual  weakness  to  ob- 
ject to  the  reliability  of  generally  accepted 
conclusions,  because  they  become  starting- 
points  for  many  lines  of  conflicting  specula- 
tion. In  religious  thought,  as  in  scientific, 
there  are  on  all  hands  the  marks  of  the  un- 
finished ;  and  the  varieties  of  opinion  asso- 
ciated with  generally  accepted  conviction  only 
afford  needful  evidence  of  healthy  intellectual 
activity. 

As  we  daily  hear  much  of  the  conflict  be- 
tween science  and  religion,  and  as  it  is  one 
part  of  the  purpose  of  the  present  course  to 
deal  with  what  is  loudly  proclaimed  to  be  a 
serious  feature  in  modern  thought,  it  becomes 
needful  to  clear  the  ground  considerably,  with 
the  view  of  discovering  where  the  alleged  con- 

*  "  If  God  had  held  all  truth  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left 
the  ever-living  desire  for  truth,  although  with  the  condition  that 
I  should  remain  in  error  for  ever,  and  if  he  should  say  to  mo 
•choose,'  I  should  humbly  incline  towards  his  left,  and  say, 
'Father,  give:  pure  truth  is  for  thee  alone?'"  —  Wotferbuttel 
Fragments.  See  Zimmern's  Life  of  Lessing,  p.  361. 


CONDITIONS    OF   THE   INQUIRY.  19 

flict  is,  and  what  form  it  assumes.  In  this,  as 
in  many  conflicts,  there  is  much  more  din  and 
tumult,  than  damage.  We  shall  by  and  by 
hear  much  less  of  conflict  than  we  are  hear- 
ing at  present.  Meanwhile,  however,  the 
work  is  considerable  which  needs  to  be  done 
in  clearing  the  field,  tracing  boundaries,  and 
disclosing  the  exact  position  of  parties.  In 
the  ruder  warfare  of  nations,  this  clearing 
work  is  undertaken  by  the  combatants  them- 
selves, and  if  not  accomplished  by  prelim- 
inary measures,  it  is  at  length  achieved  by 
the  actual  events  of  the  struggle.  But  in  this 
case,  it  may  be  done  quietly  enough  by  non- 
combatants,  while  it  may  contribute  largely  to 
the  restricting  of  the  conflict,  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  peace.  This  I  desire  to  attempt, 
in  the  hope  that  some  service  may  be  ren- 
dered both  to  the  scientific,  and  non-scientific, 
by  contributing  towards  a  general  understand- 
ing of  the  actual  position  of  affairs.  A  quiet 
survey  of  events  occurring  during  the  last 
twenty-five  years  or  so,  which  have  influ- 
enced the  relations  of  science  and  religion, 
may  suffice  to  convince  us  that  there  has 
been  on  both  sides  needless  planting  of  bat- 
teries, and  pouring  forth  of  shot.  In  many 


20  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

cases,  the  shot  has  only  sunk  into  sand  banks 
with  no  other  result  than  heavy  expenditure; 
in  other  cases,  it  has  only  shattered  timber 
defences  which  were  going  at  any  rate,  and 
soon  to  be  abandoned.  The  worst  result  has 
been  that  the  whole  district  around  has  been 
thrown  into  trouble  under  fear  of  disastrous 
results.  This  description  must  be  held  to  ap- 
ply to  outbreaks  of  theological  fury,  as  well 
as  of  scientific.  I  apprehend  that  there  are 
few  friends  of  religion  conversant  with  the 
higher  phases  of  intellectual  life  during  the 
period  to  which  reference  is  here  made,  who 
will  not  grant  that  scientific  theories  have 
been  assailed  with  undue  severity,  and  quite 
needless  apprehension,  under  the  influence  of 
religious  zeal.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equal- 
ly beyond  dispute  that  there  has  been  in  some 
scientific  quarters  an  eagerness  to  interpret 
scientific  theories  in  a  manner  adverse  to 
theological  belief,  and  often  with  undisguised 
pleasure  in  the  task,  as  if  some  real  gain  to 
thought  and  practical  interests  were  to  be 
secured  by  injury  to  religion.  The  best  work 
on  both  sides  has  been  done  quite  apart  from 
these  outbreaks  of  antagonism.  But  it  would 
be  unwise  to  omit  reference  to  them  here,  or 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  21 

to  overlook  the  lesson  they  convey,  all  the 
more  that  both  sides  admit  reasonable  ground 
for  regret.  There  has  been,  on  the  one  hand, 
too  great  readiness  in  charging  an  atheistic 
conclusion  as  the  logical  result  of  scientific 
theory;  and,  on  the  other,  too  hasty  an  as- 
sumption that  newly  recognized  facts  must 
prove  damaging  to  Christian  faith.  Detailed 
illustration  would  be  in  every  sense  undesir- 
able here,  but  outstanding  examples  will  read- 
ily occur.  Take  the  theory  of  the  Develop- 
ment of  Species  by  Natural  Selection,  to 
which  detailed  reference  will  be  made  here- 
after, which  has  a  great  multitude  of  facts 
to  favor  it,  and  at  the  same  time  a  mass  of 
facts  presenting  most  serious  logical  difficul- 
ties; it  is  obvious  that  even  if  this  theory 
were  accepted  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  at 
present  propounded,  not  only  would  the  ra- 
tional basis  for  belief  in  the  Divine  existence 
and  government  not  be  affected  by  it,  but  the 
demand  on  a  Sovereign  Intelligence  would  be 
intensified.  The  contrast  in  the  form  of  the 
general  question  may  be  represented  thus:  in 
the  one  case,  to  account  for  the  origin  of  va- 
ried forms  of  life  entirely  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent; in  the  other,  to  account  for  an  ori- 


22  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

gin  in  the  simplest  germinal  form,  or  in  a 
few  primordial  forms,  which  shall  neverthe- 
less provide  for  the  appearance  of  all  the  va- 
rieties of  species  of  animal  life  now  known 
to  us.  In  presenting  the  latter  hypothesis, 
science  presses  into  notice  a  much  greater 
perplexity  affecting  the  origin  of  the  uni- 
verse, originating  a  difficulty  towards  the  so- 
lution of  which  it  is  altogether  unable  to  offer 
the  slightest  contribution.  In  this  single  il- 
lustration, there  is  much  to  convince  theolo- 
gians and  scientific  men  that  each  division 
of  thinkers  will  best  fulfil  its  own  part,  and 
most  honor  religion  and  science,  by  working 
unreservedly  on  data  within  its  own  reach, 
without  apprehension  as  to  ultimate  conflict. 
From  the  other  side,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
find  evidence  that  continued  inquiry  and  re- 
flection have  led  to  the  abatement,  if  not  the 
actual  withdrawal,  of  scientific  hypotheses 
which  seemed  at  variance  with  common  be- 
lief, and  which  might  be  taken  as  adverse  to 
religious  thought.  For  example,  as  a  branch 
of  the  inquiry  connected  with  the  theory  of 
development  of  species,  and  coming  directly 
upon  the  position  of  man  in  the  scale  of  be- 
ing, we  had  for  a  time  a  wonderful  amount 


CONDITIONS    OF   THE   INQUIRY.  23 

of  observation,  description,  and  discussion 
concerning  monkeys  and  apes.  Laborious 
inquiries  became  provocative  of  grotesque 
fancy.  In  the  train  of  science  came  the 
workers  who  minister  to  the  popular  imagi- 
nation, and  there  appeared  a  whole  series  of 
comic  pictures,  amusing  narratives,  and  even 
musical  compositions,  representing  monkeys 
and  apes  as  taking  part  in  human  occupa- 
tions. These  have  left  their  testimony  to  the 
power  of  scientific  hypothesis  in  determining 
the  thought  and  interest  of  the  time  during 
which  they  find  favor.  It  was  demonstrated 
incontestably  that  the  anatomical  structure 
of  the  ape  was  much  more  like  to  that  of  man 
than  the  structure  of  the  dog,  or  the  horse; 
and  that  the  brain  of  the  ape  was  so  like 
in  form  and  arrangement  to  the  human  brain, 
that  it  might  be  represented  as  a  smaller  and 
undeveloped  example  of  the  human  brain. 
But  when  the  work  of  observation  and  de- 
scription had  been  well  nigh  completed;  when 
the  work  of  deliberate  thinking  was  com- 
menced with  the  assurance  that  the  facts 
were  pretty  fully  and  fairly  before  us,  there 
came  a  considerable  abatement  for  the  en- 
thusiasm of  scientific  speculation  in  the  new 


24  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

line  of  discovery.  Next  came  the  acknow- 
ledgment that  even  with  all  the  analogies  and 
homologies  of  structure,  seen  and  unseen, 
there  was  a  vast  chasm  between  the  ape  and 
man.  Forthwith,  the  stimulus  to  comic  tal- 
ent began  to  die  away;  and  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  the  department  of  anthropology 
has  not  been  greatly  advanced  from  this  new 
region  of  observation. 

These  examples  may  suffice  to  impress  at 
once  upon  theologians  and  scientists, — and 
upon  the  public  mind  also, — the  obvious,  but 
easily  forgotten  lesson,  that  there  is  need  for 
deliberation  before  we  can  clearly  decide  the 
exact  significance  of  new  scientific  discoveries. 
Neither  the  spirit  of  religion,  nor  the  scien- 
tific spirit,  disposes  inquirers  to  make  haste. 
There  is  a  basis  of  certainty,  sufficiently 
broad  and  deep  to  deliver  the  mind  from 
concern  lest  intellectual  confusion  should  arise 
from  continued  observation  and  thought. 
Enthusiasm,  acuteness,  patience,  and  also 
boldness  of  speculation,  are  needed  in  order 
to  widen  the  range  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
mysteries  of  existence;  but  caution  is  as  cer- 
tainly a  necessary  feature  in  the  gathering  of 
appliances  which  must  lie  at  the  command 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  25 

of  theologians  and  also  of  scientific  observers. 
In  fact,  there  is  at  every  fresh  advance  in 
science,  much  thinking  to  be  done,  after  ob- 
servation and  exposition  have  accomplished 
their  part,  and  this  thinking  can  not  be 
quickly  done. 

Towards  a  clear  marking  out  of  the  boun- 
daries of  science  and  religion,  it  is  needful 
that  some  definition  or  description  of  both  be 
attempted.  It  is  easy  to  be  religious  without 
sharply  marking  off  for  one's  self  the  exact 
boundaries  of  religion;  and  equally  easy  to  be 
scientific,  without  exactly  laying  down  the 
limits  of  science.  But  any  intelligent  view 
of  the  relations  of  the  two  is  not  to  be  had 
without  carefully  marking  off  the  territory 
which  they  respectively  occupy.  Science  at 
least  should  seek  for  itself  u  a  scientific  boun- 
dary," and  though  this  is  not  always  easily 
found,  it  is  essential  for  keeping  up  friendly 
relations  with  neighboring  states.  In  view, 
therefore,  of  the  requirements  of  the  present 
subject,  something  must  here  be  done  in  the 
way  of  definition,  or  at  least,  description,  del- 
icate and  difficult  as  is  the  task. 

The  object  of  these  lectures  is,  to  vindicate 
the  place  of  the  Christian  religion  within  the 


26  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

region  of  human  intelligence,  to  show  its  ra- 
tional harmony  with  science,  and  to  promote 
active  co-operation  between  the  two.  And 
this  is  to  be  done  for  the  Christian  religion 
in  view  of  all  the  advantages,  and  of  all  the 
alleged  disadvantages  too,  of  what  has  been 
reproachfully  named  "  a  book  religion,"  which 
assuredly  it  is,  just  as  all  science  must  be- 
come "book  science,"  if  it  is  to  become  a 
living  and  abiding  intellectual  power  among 
men.  For  all  reliable  knowledge  must  be 
formulated,  must  take  a  definite  orderly  shape, 
if  it  is  to  find  a  place  and  dominion.  In  the 
history  of  intelligent  being  in  this  world,  re- 
ligion first  of  all  met  this  requirement,  and  sub- 
jected itself  to  this  test,  adapting  itself  also  to 
successive  ages,  and  submitting  itself  to  their 
criticism.  Science  owns  a  like  intellectual 
necessity,  and  has  had  to  write  and  rewrite, 
to  correct  and  expand,  in  order  that  the  book- 
science  might  be  the  true  science  of  the  day. 
Whatever  be  the  nature  of  the  truth  received 
by  man,  its  statement  is  greatly  enhanced  in 
value  when  it  has  been  reduced  to  written 
form,  suitable  not  only  for  being  passed  from 
hand  to  hand,  but  for  being  pondered  with 
all  deliberation. 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE   INQUIRY.  27 

While,  however,  it  is  a  great  advantage  to 
Christianity  that  it  can  be  described  as  the 
religion  of  the  Bible, — and  it  is  to  Christianity 
that  reference  is  directly  made  here  when  re- 
ligion is  named, — there  is  in  religion  as  in 
science  that  which  comes  before  the  written 
form.  Observation  and  reflection  are  nat- 
ural avenues  to  religion,  as  well  as  to  science. 
The  Bible  appeals  to  the  intelligence  of  man 
for  its  acceptance,  subjecting  to  rational  test 
not  only  its  evidence  but  also  its  teaching.  Its 
uniform  demand  is  that  men  put  its  teaching 
to  proof.  It  thus  presupposes  a  natural  re- 
ligion as  the  prerequisite  for  special  revela- 
tion of  the  supernatural.  The  full  breadth  of 
the  argument  in  exposition  and  defence  of 
Christianity  is  seen  only  by  starting  from  this 
position,  that  all  religion,  whatever  its  form, 
rests  on  a  rational  basis.  And  its  correlative 
is  this,  irreligion  is  the  irrational.  The  vindi- 
cation of  the  Christian  religion  thus  implies 
at  its  basis  the  defence  of  religious  thought 
and  feeling  in  whatever  associations  they  may 
be  found.  For  though  it  is  true  that  the 
Christian  religion  may  be  said  to  war  against 
all  religions  besides,  seeking  to  supplant  them, 
in  order  to  become  the  universal  religion,  it 


28  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

does  so  only  on  the  footing  that  religious 
thought  and  feeling  wherever  found  have  a 
genuine  intellectual  value,  which  must  work 
towards  deliverance  from  what  is  immoral 
and  what  is  inconsistent  in  tradition.  If  it 
be  here  remarked  that  science  also  tends  to 
the  destruction  of  the  traditional  beliefs  be- 
longing to  many  of  the  religions  of  the  world, 
it  may  thereby  appear  that  science  becomes 
a  fellow-worker  with  Christianity  in  a  process 
of  demolition  required  in  the  interests  equal- 
ly of  intelligence,  morality,  and  religion.  But 
whatever  may  be  said  of  this  destructive  pro- 
cess as  one  in  which  Christianity  performs  a 
conspicuous  part,  the  religion  of  Jesus  recog- 
aizes  a  voice  in  the  works  of  creation  speak- 
ing to  the  hearts  of  men,  in  all  lands,  inso- 
much that  "there  is  no  speech  nor  language 
Tfhere  their  voice  is  not  heard."  Religious 
belief  is  thus  recognized  as  a  natural  posses- 
sion, and  reverence  for  the  Most  High  as 
following  by  rational  sequence. 

When  therefore  we  offer  a  defence  of  the 
Christian  faith  and  practice,  we  necessarily 
undertake  some  defence  of  the  varied  mani- 
festations of  natural  religion  presenting  them- 
selves in  the  world's  history.  We  are  not 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  29 

precluded  from  assigning  value  to  the  loftier 
and  purer  thought  of  ancient  civilization  tes- 
tifying against  "  the  gods  many  and  lords 
many"  of  the  popular  religion;  nor  do  we  re- 
fuse to  make  acknowledgment  of  those  ruder 
and  baser  examples  of  religious  observance 
appearing  among  tribes  of  uncivilized  men  in 
modern  times.  In  defending  religion,  we  are 
upholding  the  lofty  conceptions  of  the  Greek 
philosopher,  who  said  that  "  God  is  not  the 
author  of  evil,  but  of  good  only;"  who  de- 
clared that  God  "is  one  and  the  same,  im- 
mutably fixed  in  his  own  proper  nature,"  and 
that  "  God  and  his  attributes  are  absolutely 
perfect."  *  On  the  other  hand,  we  can  not 
escape  the  serious  entanglement  found  among 
heathen  idolatries,  for  even  while  such  idola- 
tries are  utterly  condemned,  we  are  ready  to 
maintain  that  the  most  irrational  idolatries 
have  more  of  reason  in  them  than  the  life 
which  has  been  emptied  of  religious  faith  and 
exercise. 

In  view  of  the  wide  range  of  natural  relig- 
ion, and  the  defence  of  it  here  implied,  we 
may  define  religion,  as  the  recognition  of  a 
Sovereign  Intelligence  originating  and  gov- 

*  Plato's  Republic  IL  380,  351. 


30  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

erning  all  dependent  being,  with  the  homage 
due  from  intelligent  beings  to  the  Sovereign 
Intelligence.  This  is  the  definition  which  will 
include  all  natural  religion,  and  present  the 
ground  of  its  defence  in  view  of  scientific 
suggestions  and  perplexities. 

But  taking  the  Christian  religion  as  the 
crown  and  centre  of  religious  life  in  the 
world,  we  have  a  more  full  and  commanding 
testimony  as  to  the  glory  of  the  divine  nature, 
and  the  genuine  exercises  of  a  religious  life. 
He  is  God  creating  and  sustaining  all,  ruling 
in  righteousness,  revealing  himself  in  Jesus 
Christ,  whose  glory  is  "the  glory  as  of  the  only 
begotten  of  the  Father  full  of  grace  and  truth." 
He  is  a  God  seeking  the  reconciliation  of  the 
guilty  with  himself.  He  is  a  God  of  mercy, 
calling  all  intelligent  creatures  to  fellowship 
with  him,  and  requiring  them  all  to  be  "holy 
even  as  he  is  holy."  Such  is  a  summary  of 
the  teaching  of  Scripture  as  to  the  Divine 
Being,  and  our  relation  to  him.  Thus  are  we 
guided  in  our  utterance  before  him,  "  0  Lord 
of  hosts,  God  of  Israel,  that  dwellest  between 
the  cherubim,  thou  art  the  God,  even  thou 
alone,  of  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth:  thou 
hast  made  heaven  and  earth"  (Isa.  xxxvii.  16). 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE   INQUIRY.  31 

I  content  myself  with  a  mere  summary; 
for  a  full  knowledge  we  must  take  the  Bible 
itself,  knowledge  of  which  must  be  presumed 
as  the  condition  of  criticism,  though  criticism 
has  been  abundant  which  has  borne  witness 
to  ignorance  of  the  revelation  criticised, — 
ignorance  so  marked  that  had  it  applied  to 
science  it  would  have  been  held  a  proof  of 
incompetence  for  criticism.  We  are  now  to 
take  the  Bible  representation  of  God,  and  of 
his  relation  to  us;  and  on  the  other  hand 
of  man's  faith  in  him,  and  spiritual  devo- 
tion and  service.  These  are  the  materials 
to  be  harmonized  with  the  teachings  of  sci- 
ence, by  demonstrating  that  the  testimony  of 
science  points  to  a  government  of  the  uni- 
verse harmonizing  with  the  testimony  of 
Scripture.  And  here  it  is  needful  that  there 
be  explicitness,  that  our  thesis  may  be  placed 
beyond  doubt.  The  purpose  is  not  merely  to 
show  that  science  lays  no  foundation  for  de- 
nial of  a  Supreme  Intelligence,  or  for  an  athe- 
istic conception  of  the  universe;  nor  merely 
that  it  affords  no  place  for  belief  in  Deity 
without  knowledge  of  his  nature,  for  utterance 
of  an  empty  name,  without  intelligible  con- 
tent, or  an  agnosticism,  which  affects  to  cele- 


32  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

brate  the  praises  of  Ignorance,  in  homage  to 
the  name  of  science;  nor  merely  an  immanent 
or  indwelling  Deity,  who  is  in  all  things,  and 
all  things  in  him,  so  that  he  is  the  unifying 
power,  the  soul  and  life  of  all  that  is,  includ- 
ing those  strange  contrasts  which  we  call  good 
and  evil;  but  passing  all  these  representations 
as  strange  and  alien  to  the  Bible,  to  show 
that  religion  and  science  find  their  harmony 
in  recognition  of  a  Transcendent  Deity,  a  per- 
sonal Deity,  distinct  from  the  universe, — a  per- 
sonality ruling  in  righteousness,  and  delight- 
ing to  meet  the  desires  of  intelligent  beings 
longing  after  the  perfection  of  holiness. 

I  can  imagine  that  some  devoted  students 
of  science  are  prepared  to  object  to  having 
any  share  in  a  discussion  which  is  to  include 
as  one  of  its  terms  such  a  purely  spiritual  con- 
ception as  this,  involving  a  spiritual  relation, — 
and  having  as  its  practical  expression  a  spirit- 
ual life. 

Not  a  few  scientific  men  may  be  prepared 
to  say  that  all  this  is  quite  remote  from  the 
region  with  which  they  are  familiar, — that 
science  can  hardly  be  said  to  come  into  con- 
tact with  such  a  spiritual  region  of  inquiry. 
And  I  grant  that  there  is  reason  for  urging 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  33 

such  a  consideration.  Science  can  not  occupy 
the  place  of  religion,  any  more  than  religion 
can  occupy  the  place  of  science.  But  if  there 
be  any  on  that  account  feeling  themselves  pre- 
cluded from  entering  on  the  discussion,  they 
do  thereby  proclaim  themselves  disqualified 
for  making  any  affirmation  as  to  conflict  be- 
tween the  two  courses  of  thought  and  inter- 
est. The  logical  fairness  of  this  argument  ad- 
mits of  no  challenge.  Either  scientists  must 
refrain  from  assertions  of  conflict, — or  they 
must  take  the  declarations  of  the  Bible,  and 
prove  their  antagonism  to  the  teachings  of 
science,  recognized  as  belonging  to  a  differ- 
ent sphere  of  inquiry.  As  well  propose  to 
criticise  the  conclusions  of  astronomy  in  dis- 
regard of  spectrum  analysis,  as  propose  to 
criticise  the  intellectual  worth  of  religion  in 
neglect  of  its  spiritual  significance. 

I  next  pass  over  to  inquire  what  Science 
is,  taking  its  own  testimony  concerning  its 
province  and  purpose,  as  I  have  taken  the 
testimony  of  religion.  Science  has  for  its 
sphere  or  province  the  whole  field  of  out- 
ward observation;  and  has  for  its  purpose  the 
explanation  of  facts  within  this  field,  either 
by  means  of  direct  observations  as  to  the  re- 


34  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

lations  of  things,  or  by  logical  inference  from 
such  observations.  This  field  of  study  is  full 
of  interest,  and  practically  inexhaustible.  The 
trustworthiness  of  the  method  admits  of  no 
doubt,  whether  we  consider  direct  observa- 
tion, or  guarded  and  careful  inference  from 
things  observed.  To  trust  our  powers  of  ob- 
servation, and  to  rely  on  our  reasoning  fac- 
ulty, are  the  fundamental  conditions  of  all 
knowledge.  Through  these  avenues  religious 
knowledge  must  come,  as  well  as  scientific. 
The  risk  of  conflict  is  thus  excluded  here. 
Nor  will  any  one  dispute  the  inherent  value 
of  scientific  knowledge.*  Least  of  all  could 
such  a  challenge  come  from  a  religious  basis, 
for  the  book  of  nature  is  to  the  religious 
mind  the  revelation  of  God  in  its  own  place 
and  form,  just  as  the  Bible  is  in  a  different 
and  higher  form.  The  reverence  belonging 
to  religion  will  not  derogate  from  the  dignity 
of  science.  The  natural  and  genuine  ten 
dency  of  religious  thought  must  be  to  exalt 
science,  in  its  proper  sense,  as  a  verified  ex- 
planation of  the  facts  of  existence.  A  con 
trary  tendency  can  arise  only  in  one  of  two 
ways,  either  when  religion  is  driven  back  on 
the  defensive  on  account  of  scientific  theory 

*  See  Appendix  L 


CONDITIONS    OF   THE   INQUIRY.  35 

assuming  an  attitude  of  antagonism;  or  when 
religious  thought  has  been  contracted  into 
narrow  and  hardened  form,  such  as  to  en- 
courage isolation  from  regions  of  investigation 
personally  disliked.  In  the  one  case,  dis- 
honor is  reflected  on  scientific  thinking,  in  the 
other,  dishonor  is  cast  on  religious  thought. 

These  considerations  will  indicate  the  true 
intellectual  spirit  in  which  we  should  face  the 
question  concerning  the  relations  of  religion 
and  science.  To  our  rational  nature,  every 
thing  which  is  entitled  to  rank  as  genuine 
knowledge  must  be  matter  of  interest;  and  re- 
liance on  common  means  of  acquiring  know- 
ledge, must  involve  confidence  in  the  unity  of 
all  truth,  and  the  possibility  of  demonstrating 
such  unity,  if  only  it  be  possible  for  us  to 
penetrate  deep  enough,  and  extend  our  re- 
searches wide  enough, — a  confidence  which 
will  not  be  sacrificed  even  when  the  actual 
unity  waits  discovery.  As  each  one  of  the 
planets  diffuses  its  own  share  of  light,  and  all 
combine  to  constitute  the  solar  system,  so 
each  science  must  be  a  centre  of  knowledge, 
and  all  combined  must  constitute  a  system  of 
truth. 

This  being  granted  on  purely  intellectual 


36  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

grounds,  our  concluding  point  is  connected 
with  competency  to  enter  upon  critical  in- 
quiry as  to  the  harmony  of  religion  and  sci- 
ence. What  has  been  said  as  to  knowledge 
of  the  Bible  as  a  prerequisite  for  the  discus- 
sion of  our  problem,  must  equally  hold  as  to 
science.  One  thing,  however,  needs  to  be 
fairly  stated  and  deliberately  allowed ;  the 
possibility  of  intelligent  and  adequate  criti- 
cism does  not  imply  full  acquaintance  with 
scientific  methods,  and  personal  ability  to  test 
the  results  of  their  application.  Most  of  us 
must  be  content  to  take  our  scientific  know- 
ledge on  trust,  as  Chaucer  did,  when  he  de- 
clined to  enter  upon  the  intricacies  of  astro- 
nomical study,  because  he  was  too  old  for 
making  satisfactory  progress.*  To  accept 
scientific  conclusions  without  personal  verifi- 
cation is  simply  inevitable.  When  scientific 
men  themselves  have  come  to  a  general  agree- 
ment, and  are  not  any  longer  in  conflict  on  a 
particular  conclusion,  this  must  be  enough  for 
the  great  majority  of  intelligent  inquirers. 


'Wilt  thou  learne  of  sterres  ought?' 
«  Nay,  certainly,'  quod  I,  'right  naught.' 
1  And  why  ? '  quod  he.     '  For  I  am  old.'  " 

HOUSE  OF  FAME,  B.  n,  487. 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE   INQUIRY.  37 

There  is  not,  in  this,  absolute  security  for  ac- 
curacy, but  neither  is  there  such  security  in 
the  circumstances  for  scientific  men  themselves, 
and  there  can  be  no  reasonable  ground  for  hes- 
itancy or  complaint,  either  on  our  part  or  on 
theirs,  if  we  are  ready  to  accept  general  agree- 
ment as  sufficient  testimony  for  the  time.  It 
would  be  utterly  impracticable  and  unrea- 
soning to  insist  that  we  can  not  intelligently 
accept  the  conclusions  of  astronomy  unless 
we  are  able  to  go  through  the  mathemat- 
ical processes;  or  the  main  facts  of  human 
physiology  unless  we  have  verified  each  posi- 
tion by  personal  investigation  into  the  struct- 
ure of  the  organs,  and  the  conditions  of  func- 
tional activity.  Conjectures  find  from  an 
intelligent  public  no  higher  acknowledgment 
than  is  due  to  conjecture,  simply  because 
those  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  re- 
search in  the  department  concerned  are  not 
agreed  in  attributing  to  them  any  higher  sig- 
nificance. On  the  other  hand,  conclusions  are 
accepted  as  true,  however  much  they  may  be 
at  variance  with  previously  existing  convic- 
tion, when  the  great  majority  of  scientific  in- 
quirers have  admitted  the  observations  to  be 
undoubted  or  the  reasonings  conclusive.  This 


38  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

is  the  only  conceivable  test.  It  is  that  which 
scientific  thinkers  must  themselves  recognize 
as  the  rule  of  credence  in  all  departments  of 
investigation  lying  beyond  their  own  familiar 
field  of  study;  and  it  is  that  which  is  naturally 
accepted  by  the  whole  body  of  non-scientific 
readers  and  thinkers  interested  in  the  advance 
of  knowledge.  All  practiced  theologians,  and 
all  upholders  of  religion  on  the  ground  of  in- 
telligent warrant  for  belief  and  practice,  only 
take  the  ground  of  common  intelligence  when 
they  accept  implicitly  the  conclusions  reached 
by  scientific  procedure. 

Whatever  then  may  be  the  evidence  of 
conflict  between  science  and  religion,  and 
whatever  the  difficulties  lying  in  the  way  of 
working  out  reconciliation,  there  is  clear 
warrant  for  claiming  common  ground  from 
which  to  start,  and  that  so  ample  and  secure 
that  it  is  provided  by  scientific  inquiry  itself, 
and  generally  accepted  by  educated  men  of 
all  classes.  There  can  be  no  patchwork  con- 
trivance, made  up  of  what  may  be  taken  to 
be  final  statements  of  theological  and  scientific 
positions.  We  do  not  aim  at  some  agglom- 
eration of  materials  gathered  from  opposite 
quarters  and  brought  together  with  the  de- 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  39 

sign  of  constructing  a  compact  and  durable 
unity.  Neither  from  the  side  of  religion,  nor 
from  that  of  science,  could  such  a  proposal 
find  countenance.  Each  must  work  from 
its  own  basis,  the  one  from  Revelation,  the 
other  from  Nature.  Each  must  go  on  its 
own  course  of  development  and  active  ser- 
vice, unaided  and  undeterred  by  the  other. 
And  from  age  to  age  in  the  world's  progress 
it  must  continue  part  of  the  task  connected 
with  intelligent  existence,  to  go  from  one  to 
the  other,  in  search  of  the  lines  of  harmony. 
From  both  sides  must  come  an  impulse  to 
this  search  for  agreement.  From  the  scien- 
tific side,  by  an  intellectual  necessity,  for  all 
intelligent  research  presses  on  towards  unity 
in  a  complete  conquest  of  the  region  of  inves- 
tigation, pushing  out  in  distinct  lines  with 
full  conviction  of  the  harmony  of  being,  and 
of  conclusions  expressing  so  much  of  this 
harmony  as  has  been  definitely  ascertained. 
And  what  is  no  less  certain,  though  not  so 
freely  admitted,  all  investigation  as  to  the 
laws  of  existence,  even  that  which  proclaims 
confidence  only  in  observation,  with  inference 
from  what  it  discloses,  is  urging  the  human 
mind  onward  to  a  higher  range  of  questions 


40  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

as  to  existence  beyond  observation,  and  the 
causes  of  things  visible.  Impotent  in  the  ex- 
treme has  been  the  voice  of  a  " positive"  phi- 
losophy, denouncing  the  search  for  causes, 
sounding  its  trumpet  call  to  rally  all  divisions 
of  scientific  workers  to  search  exclusively  for 
facts,  as  if  such  workers  were  but  a  band 
of  quarrymen,  boring,  blasting,  and  gather- 
ing up  shattered  fragments  of  rock.  For 
facts  must  science  ever  search;  with  nothing 
short  of  ascertained  facts  can  it  be  satisfied; 
but,  having  found  them,  it  must  classify  and 
harmonize,  seeking  for  the  laws  which  regu- 
late their  occurrence,  and  for  the  causes  by 
which  they  may  be  rationally  explained. 

On  the  other  hand,  from  the  sphere  of 
religion  must  ever  arise  a  powerful  impulse 
to  seek  harmony  of  conviction  with  the  veri- 
fied results  of  scientific  research.  This  may 
be  expected  to  prove  a  more  urgent  and 
practical  necessity  than  that  which  operates 
from  within  the  region  of  science.  The  be- 
lief in  a  personal  Deity,  as  the  source  of  all 
dependent  existence,  and  the  controller  of  all, 
leads  by  a  necessity  both  intellectual  and 
spiritual  to  a  search  for  order  in  all  things, 
and  a  harmony  of  the  universe.  Viewed 


CONDITIONS    OF    THE    INQUIRY.  41 

only  as  an  intellectual  discipline, — and  this 
is  an  important  though  partial  view  of  it, — • 
religion  develops  what  may  be  described  as 
the  intellectual  instinct,  craving  for  know- 
ledge, with  expectation  of  order  and  harmo- 
ny everywhere,  and  with  prospect  of  ample 
reward  for  patient  research.  Religion,  begin- 
ning with  the  conception  of  a  transcendent 
Being, — seeing  in  finite  existence  a  creation 
and  a  cosmos, — gives  more  powerful  stimulus 
to  search  for  harmony  of  truth,  than  can  be 
said  to  spring  from  science.  The  latter  by 
the  necessity  of  its  procedure  begins  by  con- 
tracting thought  in  order  to  concentrate,  and 
is  apt  to  encourage  its  most  devoted  servants 
to  work  on  isolated  divisions  of  existence, 
relegating  to  a  distant  future  the  greater  and 
more  puzzling  task  of  contemplating  the  har- 
mony of  all  sciences.  It  is,  then,  by  pressing 
into  view  an  urgeat  practical  and  personal 
need,  that  religion  may  be  said  in  the  history 
of  individual  life  to  contribute  the  strongest 
motive  power  towards  such  intellectual  effort 
as  is  concerned  with  the  harmonizing  of  all 
truth.  This  will  appear  in  personal  experi- 
ence according  to  the  intellectual  activity  of 
the  individual,  under  the  requirements  of  his 


42  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

religious  life,  and  in  study  of  all  that  belongs 
to  the  system  of  the  universe.  This  being 
recognized  and  avowed,  as  following  from  the 
very  nature  of  religion,  it  devolves  on  the 
Church  in  all  its  divisions, — the  brotherhood 
of  believers, — to  manifest  a  genuine  and  pro- 
found interest  in  the  progress  of  science, 
making  felt  in  the  world  the  full  influence  of 
the  spirit,  at  once  scientific  and  religious, 
which  seeks  to  discover  and  demonstrate  the 
harmony  of  created  existence. 


LECTURE  II. 

EXPERIENCE  GATHERED  FROM  PAST 
CONFLICTS. 

HPHERE  have  been  within  quite  recent 
times  conflicts  as  to  the  relations  of 
science  and  religion,  which  have  now  lost 
their  living  interest.  All  classes  greatly  af- 
fected by  current  literature,  and  scientific  dis- 
cussion, whether  ranking  themselves  on  the 
side  of  religion,  or  otherwise,  were  deeply 
moved  by  them.  It  appeared  at  the  time, 
as  if  some  new  position  were  to  be  marked 
off,  destined  to  affect  our  whole  conception  of 
the  government  of  the  universe.  The  expec- 
tation was  not  verified;  public  interest  died 
away ;  and  preparations  for  conflict  were 
abandoned,  on  account  of  the  unexpected  dis- 
covery that  there  was  nothing  to  fight  about. 
It  is  a  wise  rule  affecting  our  busy  life, 
crowded  with  present-day  duties,  that  we  al- 
low subjects  quietly  to  drop  out  of  view 
have  lost  living  interest.  But  this  wise 


44  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

rule  is  turned  to  unwise  ends,  if  it  make  us 
forgetful  of  the  lessons  of  the  past.  Scientific 
progress  consists  in  the  abandonment  of  un- 
tenable positions,  for  occupancy  of  others 
proved  to  be  more  reliable.  Accordingly  the 
conflict  which  seems  to  threaten  the  interests 
of  religion  wears  now  one  aspect  and  now  an- 
other, as  determined  by  the  stage  of  scientific 
progress  which  has  been  reached.  But  all 
intellectual  progress  is  an  evolution,  bearing 
at  every  moment  some  trace  of  what  has  been 
left  behind,  as  well  as  evidence  of  accretion. 
A  large  amount  of  the  experience  connected 
with  intellectual  life  is  gathered  from  events 
connected  with  abandoning  positions  of  past 
interest,  as  well  as  from  those  associated  with 
what  is  new.  I  propose,  therefore,  though 
within  comparativel}7  narrow  limits,  to  refer 
to  past  conflicts,  quite  recent,  but  practically 
at  an  end.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  intellectual 
interests  follow  in  such  rapid  succession,  and 
each  is  so  absorbing  during  its  continuance, 
that  we  readily  forget  the  tangled  waste  bur- 
ied from  sight  under  the  spring- tide  of  rising 
expectation.  We  easily  lose  sight  of  the  past, 
even  though  it  lie  close  at  hand,  and  as  we 
feel  the  pulse  of  life  beat  high  in  proportion 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        45 

to  the  vividness  and  apparent  value  of  our 
prospects,  we  are  ever  liable  to  overestimate 
the  importance  of  the  present  position,  thus 
severing  ourselves  too  readily  from  all  that 
lies  behind.  There  may  be  reason  for  cutting 
down  bridges  in  the  rear,  if  there  be  appre- 
hension of  cowardice  in  the  ranks;  but  where 
the  calmness  and  courage  of  resolute  progress 
are  found,  there  is  no  need  for  a  yawning 
chasm  behind.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  just 
beyond  some  bridges  recently  crossed,  there 
lie  a  good  many  traces  of  humiliation.  And 
it  is  according  to  the  tendency  of  human 
nature,  whether  religious  or  anti-religious,  to 
turn  away  from  that  which  occasions  uneasi- 
ness. But  there  is  a  moral,  as  well  as  an  in- 
tellectual demand,  for  thoroughness  in  recog- 
nizing the  continuity  of  events.  The  scientific 
spirit  can  not  excuse  a  covering  up  of  past 
failures,  as  the  formulating  of  verified  results 
must  imply  testimony  concerning  them.  It  is 
of  the  very  nature  of  religious  conviction  that 
we  should  learn  from  the  failures  of  the  past, 
and  should  advance  out  of  them  with  higher 
wisdom.  By  common  consent,  therefore,  we 
can  have  no  accurate  survey  of  the  present 
situation,  without  making  account  of  what  has 


46  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

been  recently  passed,  as  well  as  what  may  be 
regarded  as  pressing  upon  our  notice  in  these 
days. 

We  do  not  need  to  travel  a  long  way  to 
the  rear  in  order  to  discover  how  far  astray 
we  may  be,  both  in  expectations  and  in  ap- 
prehensions; how  readily  we  may  get  into 
confusion  as  to  the  interests  involved  in  ex- 
citing controversies;  and  how  much  we  need 
caution,  making  allowance  for  our  partial  sur- 
vey of  facts,  and  our  uncertainty  as  to  what 
may  open  up. 

By  way  of  illustration,  I  shall  refer  to  the 
history  of  discussions  concerning  so-called 
'''spontaneous  generation"  mixed  up  with  as- 
certained facts  as  to  protoplasm,  bathybius, 
or  "living  slime,"  as  it  has  been  called,  and 
bacterium.  The  question  eagerly  discussed 
was  whether  there  might  be  origin  of  life, 
without  development  from  germ,  seed,  or 
ovum.  The  problem  was  one  of  those  sug- 
gestions apt  to  arise  under  pressure  of  new 
conjectures  and  theories.  While  the  scientific 
world  was  astir  on  the  question  of  develop- 
ment, attention  was  turned  for  a  time  tow- 
ards the  possibility  of  a  fresh  beginning  of 
organic  forms,  life  which  should  be  no  de- 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        47 

velopment,  but  should  rather  seem  as  an 
uncaused  existence, — "spontaneous  genera- 
tion." It  might  have  been  urged  that  the 
suggestion  was  contrary  to  reason;  that  "  in- 
exorable logic,"  of  which  we  often  hear  from 
scientific  observers,  forbade  the  supposition; 
that  all  the  conditions  of  scientific  thought 
were  against  it ;  that  the  very  conception  of 
' '  spontaneous  generation  "  was  a  logical  in- 
consistency, alien  to  the  requirements  of  sci- 
entific thought,  as  implying  uncaused  exist- 
ence; but  we  were  reminded  that  we  are 
prohibited  from  supposing  any  thing  is  im- 
possible in  the  pathway  of  science,  that  obser- 
vation must  be  first,  and  reason  only  second, 
and  accordingly  the  needful  experiments  went 
on  under  all  due  precautions.  The  brief 
chapter  in  the  history  of  science  which  re- 
cords expectations  and  results  connected  with 
these  experiments,  well  deserves  to  be  re- 
membered. It  is  here  selected  for  illustra- 
tion, both  on  account  of  its  inherent  im- 
portance, and  its  relation  to  the  theory  of 
development,  which  must  afterwards  have 
special  attention. 

Some  descent   is   required   from   ordinary 
scientific  observation  to  the  level  where  this 


48  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

question  is  discussed.  From  the  germ-cell, 
we  pass  down  to  an  albuminous  substance 
spread  over  the  ocean-bed,  said  to  have  life, 
or  we  descend  to  microscopic  organisms,  such 
as  bacteria;  and  a  step  lower  down  still,  we 
are  introduced  to  the  question  whether  in 
water  passed  through  the  boiling  process  so 
as  to  guard  against  the  presence  of  germinal 
forms,  we  may  not  witness  the  origin  of  life. 
The  question  so  raised  had  additional  inter- 
est because  of  the  bearing  it  might  have  on 
the  first  appearance  of  life  in  the  history  of 
this  world.  This  interest  was  shared  on  both 
sides,  by  those  who  held  that  creation  is  a 
conception  not  only  alien  to  scientific  thought 
(which  it  may  well  be  *),  but  inconsistent  with 
it;  and  by  those  who  regarded  creation  as  the 
only  conception  adequate  to  meet  rational  re- 
quirements. The  question  had  at  the  same 
time  a  direct  practical  interest  connected  with 
public  health,  on  account  of  its  bearing  upon 
the  diffusion  and  vital  tenacity  of  spores  or 
germinal  forms  capable  of  spreading  conta- 
gious disease.f 

*  Science  can  not  reach  the  beginning  of  things, 
t  See  Disease  Germs,  their  Nature  and  Origin,  by  Beale.    Lon- 
don, Churchill;  Philadelphia,  Lindsay  and  Blaikiston. 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        49 

The  controversy  on  this  subject  was  at  its 
height  in  the  years  1876,  and  1877,  having  a 
large  amount  of  most  careful  and  difficult  ex- 
periment devoted  to  it.  The  result  has  been 
a  valuable  addition  to  scientific  knowledge  as 
to  the  vitality  of  germinal  forms,  and  a  quietus 
to  theories  as  to  "  spontaneous  generation." 

The  direct  object  placed  before  the  scien- 
tific mind  when  the  discussion  arose  was  this, 
— to  ascertain  whether  an  origin  of  vital  ac- 
tivity could  be  observed  in  the  midst  of  mate- 
rials from  which  all  germinal  forms  of  life 
were  certainly  excluded. 

The  selection  of  materials  to  experiment 
upon  was  for  a  time  according  to  the  fancy 
of  the  experimenter.  It  was  not  proposed 
that  a  vacuum  should  be  made  by  withdrawal 
of  all  air  from  a  glass  vessel,  thereafter  watch- 
ing for  the  appearance  of  some  organic  form. 
Nor  was  it  suggested  that  pure  water  might 
be  taken  from  a  spring,  and  boiled,  and  left 
standing  under  daily  observation.  A  great 
variety  of  materials  was  selected  to  provide 
an  infusion  which  might  afford  the  conditions 
for  application  of  scientific  tests.  In  this  way 
the  following  materials  were  used  and  tested, 
infusion  of  turnip,  of  pounded  cheese,  hay, 


60  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

meat,  fish,  besides  egg- albumen,  blood,  and 
urine.  Vegetable  production's,  animal  tissue, 
and  secretions  of  the  human  body  closely  con- 
nected with  vital  processes,  were  thus  sub- 
jected to  test.  In  the  history  of  investiga- 
tion, attention  ultimately  concentrated  on  the 
infusion  of  hay  and  on  urine.  Observations 
were  conducted  in  Paris  and  London;  results 
were  published  from  time  to  time;  singular 
divergence  became  apparent  in  these  recorded 
results;  this  led  to  controversy,  which  became 
so  keen,  that  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris 
appointed  a  commission  of  three  to  adjudicate 
upon  a  challenge  given  by  M.  Pasteur  of  Par- 
is to  Dr.  Bastian  of  London;  which  Com- 
mission met  in  Paris  on  15th  July,  1877,  but 
never  adjudicated  in  the  matter.* 

The  perplexities  encountered  in  conducting 
observations  arose  chiefly  from  two  causes: 
the  difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  temperature 
at  which  living  organisms  were  certainly  de- 
stroyed, and  the  materials  sterilized;  and*  that 
of  guarding  against  interference  with  this  state 
when  established,  by  contact  with  the  atmos- 
phere. The  latter  perplexity,  involving  much 
care,  skilful  manipulation,  and  mechanical  con- 

*  Nature  vol.  xvi.  p.  276. 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        51 

trivance,  was  at  last  overcome  by  the  con- 
struction of  glass  tubes,  separating  for  a  time 
the  distinct  materials,  with  facility  for  their 
mixture  at  the  proper  moment  without  con- 
tact with  the  air. 

The  true  scientific  difficulty,  however,  was 
determination  of  a  reliable  test  for  destruc- 
tion of  germinal  forms,  either  adhering  to  the 
materials,  embedded  in  them,  or  floating  in 
the  atmosphere.  The  history  of  observations 
bearing  on  this  question  is  deeply  interesting. 
In  the  earlier  tentative  experiments,  the  ma- 
terial placed  under  observation  was  boiled;  it 
was  concluded  that  no  vital  organism  could 
endure  this  process;  and  the  material  was 
kept  for  a  time  in  a  temperature  of  from 
seventy  to  eighty  degrees  Fahr.,  which  was 
regarded  as  favorable  to  the  development  of 
life.  In  process  of  time,  a  deposit  appeared 
in  the  tube,  and  this  when  examined  under 
the  microscope  was  found  to  contain  bacte- 
ria,* living,  moving  germinal  forms  so  minute 
as  to  require  high  magnifying  power  for  their 
discovery.  Here  then  was  "spontaneous  gen- 
eration." Who  could  be  so  credulous  as  to 

*  Examples  of  the  bacteria  magnified  1,800,  3,000,  and  5,000 
times  are  given  in  Plate  L  p.  16,  of  Beale's  Disease  Germs. 


52  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

believe  that  minute  organic  forms  could  live 
through  the  boiling  process  ?  If  this  appeared 
too  absurd  to  fancy,  then  spontaneous  gener- 
ation, or  actual  origin  of  life  out  of  non-or- 
ganized matter,  must  be  held  to  be  estab- 
lished. It  was  only  the  audacity  of  prejudice, 
and  hopeless  alienation  from  the  "  advanced 
thought "  of  the  time,  which  could  induce  any 
one  to  doubt,  in  face  of  these  experiments, 
carefully  recorded  and  published.*  Scien- 
tific observers  of  great  experience  and  repu- 
tation felt  it  needful  to  express  themselves 
with  caution,  leaving  results  to  be  tested. 

A  considerable  number  of  investigators  be- 
gan to  turn  their  attention  to  the  subject,  and 
a  period  of  seven  years  was  occupied  before 
the  results  became  so  certain  as  to  be  prac- 
tically final.  Pasteur,  Pouchet,  and  Joubert 
were  at  work  in  France,  Crookes,  Child, 
Beale,  Roberts,  Bastian,  Tyndall  and  others 
in  England. 

All  experiments  concentrated  upon  cer- 
tainty in  sterilizing  the  substance  operated 
upon.  Pasteur  pointed  out  that  the  chem- 
ical properties  of  the  infusion  affected  the 

*  For  Dr.  Bastian's  experiments  see  Times,  April  13,  1870; 
and  Nature,  June  and  July,  1870. 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        53 

vitality  of  the  microscopic  germs  inclosed  in 
it;  and  Roberts  at  a  later  stage  confirmed  this 
by  independent  investigation,  proving  ''that 
slightly  alkaline  liquids  are  more  difficult  to 
sterilize  by  heat  than  slightly  acid  liquids.* 
In  this  way,  it  was  shown  that  distinct  rec- 
ords of  temperature  were  needful,  greater 
intensity  of  heat  being  required  in  some 
cases  than  in  others,  in  order  to  secure  de- 
struction of  germs.  The  facts  were  illustrated 
by  hay  infusion,  ' '  the  acid  infusion  invariably 
remaining  barren  after  a  few  minutes'  boiling, 
and  the  neutralized  infusion  invariably  be- 
coming fertile  after  a  similar  boiling."  f  The 
neutralizing  element  was  liquor  potassae,  and 
the  next  question  started  was  this,  Did  the 
liquor  potassce  enable  the  germs  to  live 
longer  under  the  boiling  process,  or  did  its 
infusion  operate  so  as  to  originate  life  where 
germs  no  longer  had  any  existence  ?  A  con- 
trivance was  adopted  by  which  the  boiling 
could  be  applied  to  the  hay  infusion,  while 
the  liquor  potassae  was  kept  enclosed  in  an- 
other part  of  the  tube,  ready  to  be  added 

*  Contribution  to  Eoyal  Society  of  London.    Nature  xv.  p. 
302,  Feb.  1,  1877. 
t  A 


54  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

without  exposure  to  the  air,  after  the  boiling 
process  was  over.  When  added  in  this  way, 
"the  liquor  potassae  had  not  any  power  to 
excite  germination:"  the  expectation  that  a 
certain  mixture  of  acid  and  alkali  would 
originate  life  was  disappointed;  all  the  earlier 
experiments  were  discredited.  Still,  some 
clung  to  their  expressed  belief,  for  there  is  a 
prejudice  of  advanced  thought,  as  there  is 
a  prejudice  of  old  beliefs.  Tenacity  of  avowed 
opinion,  with  strong  love  of  research,  pro- 
longed the  inquiry,  and  led  to  more  decided 
evidence. 

The  controversy  was  conducted  by  Dr.  Rob- 
erts against  Dr.  Bastian,  while  all  the  experi- 
ments of  Professor  Tyndall  were  converging 
upon  the  same  conclusions  as  those  reached 
by  Roberts.*  That  Bastian  had  obtained  bac- 
teria after  boiling,  admitted  of  no  doubt,  and 
he  naturally  clung  to  this  fact  as  encouraging; 
others  regarded  it  as  only  misleading.  Bas- 
tian maintained  that  the  alkali  had  a  positive 
power  of  originating  life,  and  stated  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-two  degrees  Fahr.  as  favor- 
able to  the  appearance  of  life.  Roberts  took 
ten  examples  of  sterilized  urine,  and  twenty- 

•  Nature  voL  xv.  p.  302,  and  Appendix  IL 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        55 

nine  examples  of  fermentible  liquids  which 
had  remained  over  from  the  earlier  experi- 
ments of  1873-74,  and  these  thirty-nine  ex- 
amples were  subjected  to  careful  experiment 
and  observation.  In  the  first  ten  cases,  the 
tube  was  heated  in  oil  for  fifteen  minutes  up 
to  two  hundred  and  eighty  degrees  Fahr.;  the 
ten  tubes  were  then  set  in  a  warm  place  (from 
seventy  degrees  to  eighty  degrees  Fahr.)  for 
a  fortnight;  the  contents  were  transparent;  the 
alkali  was  then  allowed  to  mingle  with  it,  and 
the  tubes  were  placed  in  an  incubator  kept 
at  a  temperature  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
degrees  Fahr.;  at  the  end  of  two  days  there 
was  a  sediment,  and  the  liquor  was  clear;  the 
tubes  were  replaced  in  the  incubator,  the  tem- 
perature being  raised  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-two  degrees  Fahr.  as  recommended 
by  Dr.  Bastian;  there  they  continued  for  three 
days;  they  were  then  withdrawn  and  placed 
under  the  microscope,  but  no  trace  of  living 
organism  was  found  either  in  the  fluid  or  in 
the  deposit  under  it.  The  twenty-nine  cases, 
including  a  variety  of  vegetable  and  animal 
preparations  were  next  treated  in  like  manner, 
and  with  like  results.  Tyndall's  experiments 
were  reported  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London 


66  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

at  the  same  time,  with  exactly  the  same  re- 
sult. M.  Pasteur  had  previously  reported  to 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  to  the  same 
effect.  It  was  thus  proved  by  a  mass  of  evi- 
dence that  if  proper  precautions  were  taken 
to  destroy  germinal  forms,  no  mixture  of  al- 
kali with  acid,  whatever  the  variety  of  mate- 
rials selected,  was  adequate  to  produce  life. 

A  few  months  later  than  the  communica- 
tions of  Roberts  and  Tyndall,  that  is,  May, 
1877,  the  results  of  ten  years7  experiment, 
first  by  Mr.  Dallinger  himself,  and  thereafter 
by  Mr.  Dallinger  and  Mr.  Drysdale  conjointly, 
were  communicated  to  the  Royal  Institution, 
London,  on  u  the  origin  and  development  of 
minute  and  lowly  life  forms.*  "  The  purpose 
of  these  experiments  was  to  watch  the  growth 
of  the  minutest  germs,  capable  of  being  seen 
only  under  a  powerful  microscope,  putting  to 
actual  test  their  tenacity  of  life.  The  largest 
objects  were  one-thousandth  of  an  inch,  the 
smallest,  the  four- thousandth  of  an  inch.  Six 
distinct  forms  were  selected  for  observation, 
and  their  history  was  made  out.  A  magnify- 
ing power  of  five  thousand  degrees  was  used. 
In  the  glairy  fluid  a  monad  larger  than  usual 

*  Nature  voL  xvi  p.  24. 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        57 

seized  on  a  smaller;  they  became  fused  after 
swimming  about  together;  the  single  object 
then  appeared  a  motionless  spec;  this  proved 
to  be  a  sac,  from  which  at  the  close  of  a  pe- 
riod varying  from  ten  to  thirty-six  hours,  it 
burst,  and  young  spores  became  visible  in  the 
fluid,  which  were  kept  under  observation  till 
they  reached  maturity.  Special  interest  was 
connected  with  these  observations  not  only 
as  illustrating  the  growth  of  spores,  or  germs; 
but  as  allowing  application  of  the  test  of  heat 
at  different  stages  of  growth.  When  this  test 
was  applied,  it  was  found  that  one  hundred 
and  forty  degrees  Fahr.  was  sufficient  to  cause 
the  death  of  adults,  whereas  the  young  spores 
were  able  to  live  notwithstanding  the  applica- 
tion of  three  hundred  degrees  Fahr.  for  ten 
minutes.  In  this  direction  fresh  discovery 
was  to  be  made. 

In  June  1877, — a  month  later, — Professor 
Tyndall  gave  the  record  of  further  researches.* 
These  presented  additional  results  as  to  de- 
grees of  temperature  requisite  for  destroying 
microscopic  organisms.  It  had  been  already 
shown  that  alkaline  liquids  are  more  difficult 
to  sterilize,  than  acid  liquids;  it  was  further 

*  Nalwre  vol.  xvi.  p.  127. 


58  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

shown  that  the  death  point  was  higher  in  air, 
than  in  water;  for  Professor  Tyndall  ex- 
tended his  researches  to  air,  as  well  as  liquid. 
First  dealing  with  the  fluid  form,  he  found 
germs  possessed  of  vitality  so  singular  that 
five  or  six  hours  of  boiling  did  not  destroy 
them,  and  in  one  case  eight  hours  was  insuffi- 
cient for  the  purpose.  In  this  connection,  he 
came  to  the  conclusion  that  some  germinal 
orders  were  more  easily  destroyed  than  others. 
When  dealing  with  bacteria,  he  found  that 
they  differed  from  other  forms  in  this,  that 
they  rose  to  the  air  as  if  it  were  a  requi- 
site, whereas  other  germs,  such  as  those  be- 
longing to  the  process  of  fermentation,  could 
exist  without  oxygen.  This  led  to  an  addi- 
tional form  of  experiment,  with  the  view  of 
deciding  whether  bacteria  could  be  destroyed 
by  withdrawal  of  air;  and  if  so,  whether  the 
bacteria  would  reappear  after  the  existing  mi- 
croscopic life  had  been  stifled.  Tyndall  began 
by  applying  the  air-pump.  Under  this  pro- 
cess the  bacteria  were  enfeebled  greatly,  but 
not  destroyed.  Thereafter  Sprengel  pumps 
were  used,  by  means  of  which  the  air  dis- 
solved in  the  infusions  was  withdrawn,  as  well 
as  that  diffused  in  the  spaces  above.  In 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST  CONFLICTS.        59 

numerous  cases  there  was  success  in  destroy- 
ing the  germs  by  removal  of  the  air  in  this 
way  without  any  boiling  process.  In  these 
cases,  the  air  was  carefully  restored,  precau- 
tions being  adopted  to  guard  against  admis- 
sion of  germinal  forms,  and  in  no  case  did  life 
reappear  in  the  infusions.  As  in  the  more 
common  style  of  experiment,  the  warmth 
suitable  could  not  charm  the  life  back  again; 
so  in  this,'  the  restoration  of  oxygen,  could 
not  secure  restoration  of  life. 

Thus  evidence  from  all  sides  directed  surely 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  alleged  discovery 
of  "spontaneous  generation"  was  a  delusion, 
the  result  of  hasty  and  insufficient  experi- 
ment. Dr.  Bastian,  nevertheless,  stuck  he- 
roically to  his  original  position,  and  came 
into  conflict  with  M.  Pasteur  of  Paris,  by 
means  of  a  communication  which  the  English 
Professor  had  sent  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  July  of  the  previous  year,  1876.  In  the 
beginning  of  1877,  M.  Pasteur  threw  down 
an  explicit  challenge  to  Professor  Bastian, 
which  resulted  in  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mission to  observe  the  experiments  and  adju- 
dicate. With  this  terminates  the  history  of 
nearly  ten  years  of  curious  and  singular  in- 


60  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

vestigation,  and  Dr.  Bastian  himself  has  sup- 
plied the  history  of  the  closing  scene,  laying 
open  the  whole  correspondence  to  public  in- 
vestigation, as  if  he  were  unconscious  of  the 
complete  demolition  of  his  favorite  theory 
of  "  spontaneous  generation."  The  15th  of 
July,  1877,  witnessed  the  close  of  a  battle  he 
had  been  fighting  against  steadily  increasing 
odds,  and  which  he  had  begun  in  June,  1870. 
Dr.  Bastian's  position  was  "  that  a  solution  of 
boiled  potash  caused  bacteria  to  appear  in 
sterile  urine  at  fifty  degrees  Cent.,  added  in 
a  quantity  sufficient  to  neutralize  the  latter." 
These  he  regarded  as  the  physico-chemical 
conditions  for  spontaneous  generation  of 
bacteria. 

The  challenge  from  M.  Pasteur  was  in  these 
terms; — "  I  defy  Dr.  Bastian  to  obtain,  in  the 
presence  of  competent  judges,  the  result  to 
which  I  have  referred  with  sterile  urine,  on 
the  sole  condition  that  the  solution  of  potash 
which  he  employs  be  pure,  i.  e.,  made  with 
pure  water  and  pure  potash,  both  free  from 
organic  matter.  If  Dr.  Bastian  wishes  to  use 
a  solution  of  impure  potash,  I  freely  authorize 
him  to  take  any  in  the  English  or  any  other 
Pharmacopoeia,  being  diluted  or  concentrated, 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST  CONFLICTS.        61 

on  the  sole  condition  that  that  solution  shall 
be  raised  beforehand  to  one  hundred  and  ten 
degrees  for  twenty  minutes,  or  to  one  hundred 
and  thirty  degrees  for  five  minutes.'7 

A  Commission  was  appointed  by  the  Acad- 
emy, and  Dr.  Bastian  agreed  to  appear  before 
it,  but  only  on  conditions  he  laid  down  greatly 
restricting  the  range  of  inquiry.  He  ignored 
the  first  and  most  searching  form  of  M.  Pas- 
teur's challenge;  claimed  that  the  adjudication 
of  the  Commission  should  be  only  on  the  sec- 
ond; and  further  stated  that  if  the  Commission 
were  "  to  express  an  opinion  upon  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  fact  attested,  and  upon  its 
bearings  on  '  the  germ  theory  of  fermenta- 
tion,' or  'spontaneous  generation,7"  he  would 
respectfully  decline  to  take  part  in  this  wider 
inquiry.  The  Commission  refused  to  be  re- 
stricted to  the  worst  form  of  the  experiment, 
and  to  be  bound  to  withhold  an  opinion  as  to 
its  bearing  on  the  question  of  ' '  spontaneous 
generation.'7  Dr.  Bastian  went  to  Paris,  but 
the  members  of  the  Commission  declined  to 
deal  with  less  than  the  challenge  given,  and 
the  meeting  was  never  properly  constituted. 
"Thus  ended,77  as  Dr.  Bastian  has  said,  "  the 
proceedings  of  this  remarkable  Commission 


62  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

of  the  French  Academy."  The  proceedings 
ended  before  they  had  begun.  Dr.  Bastian  by 
his  restrictions,  surrendered  the  real  question 
at  issue,  and  practically  acknowledged  that  he 
would  not  submit  it  to  the  judgment  of  the 
Commission.  He  sought  only  testimony  as  to 
his  own  form  of  experiment,  which  there  was 
then  good  reason  to  know  was  accurate,  be- 
cause M.  Pasteur  had  stated  a  temperature 
too  low,  and  a  time  too  short,  but  which  was 
at  the  same  time  an  experiment  of  no  scien- 
tific value  for  establishing  "  spontaneous  gen- 
eration." Thus  ended  a  battle  which  had 
been  protracted  long  after  it  was  to  all  ob- 
servers manifestly  lost. 

The  discussion  thus  narrated  may  be  easily 
overestimated,  but  there  seems  even  more  risk 
that  the  manifest  failure  should  lead  to  an 
oversight  of  the  value  of  the  protracted  in- 
vestigations. These  convey  lessons  of  special 
value  to  scientific  inquirers  on  the  one  hand, 
and  to  theologians  on  the  other.  They  are  of 
great  value  for  illustrative  purposes  in  such  a 
course  of  lectures  as  the  present,  and  that 
because  they  provide  needful  training  for  in- 
telligent observation  of  the  advance  of  science. 

The  promulgation  of  the  development  the- 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        63 

ory  of  species  has  given  a  conception  of  the 
unity  of  organic  life  in  the  world,  which  even 
in  its  most  modified  form  has  an  imposing 
grandeur.  Influenced  by  this,  scientific  men 
are  naturally  concerned  to  make  out,  if  pos- 
sible, some  connection  between  inorganic  and 
organic  being.  To  work  at  this,  is  part  of  the 
inevitable  task  of  science,  even  though  the  re- 
sult should  be  only  to  establish  the  helpless- 
ness of  science  in  dealing  with  it. 

We  have  chemical  and  dynamical  theories 
of  life  which  stimulate  repetition  of  experi- 
ments, in  the  hope  that  some  grand  discovery 
may  be  made.  Those  just  described  present 
a  curious  illustration.  In  the  circumstances, 
we  can  well  understand  the  persistence  with 
which  Dr.  Bastian  clung  to  his  supposed  dis- 
covery of  the  physico-chemical  conditions  for 
production  of  living  organism. 

Science  finds  in  these  experiments  a  fresh 
lesson  of  the  need  for  caution,  guarding  against 
the  hampering  influence  of  popular  notions,  as 
in  reference  to  the  probable  effects  of  the  boil- 
ing process.  For  if  the  experiments  have 
proved  a  failure  so  far  as  support  to  a  theory 
of  spontaneous  generation  is  concerned,  they 
have  revealed  a  tenacity  of  life  belonging  to 


64  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

the  lowest  microscopic  organisms,  far  beyond 
higher  organic  forms,  and  the  consequent 
weakness  of  ordinary  human  devices  in  strug- 
gling against  the  development  of  such  germs. 
These  experiments  also  emphasize  the  need 
for  attention  to  the  laws  of  rational  proced- 
ure, as  well  as  to  skill  in  experimental  obser- 
vation, if  science  is  to  be  exempted  from 
needless  toils. 

Theology  has  here  also  a  lesson  of  patience, 
for  it  may  well  leave  science  to  do  its  own 
work,  undisturbed  by  apprehensions  as  to 
possible  consequences  to  morality  and  relig- 
ion. All  that  the  telescope  can  reveal,  and 
the  microscope  can  make  known,  through 
years  of  experimenting,  we  wish  to  have  dis- 
covered, for  only  thus  shall  we  come  to  un- 
derstand the  world's  lessons  of  wisdom  and 
power  lying  far  beyond  the  range  of  our  un- 
aided vision.  All  the  churches  of  Christ  have 
reason  to  hail  the  extension  of  scientific  know- 
ledge. Those  who  set  high  account  on  patient 
interpretation  of  the  written  Revelation,  have 
reason  to  value  this  laborious  reading  out  of 
the  lessons  written  in  the  book  of  Nature. 

A  wider  and  more  general  result  may  be 
expected  than  that  which  bears  directly  on 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        65 

the  relations  of  science  and  religion.  All  in- 
telligent readers  of  scientific  discussions  will 
find  discipline  from  pondering  these  experi- 
ments. They  illustrate  the  toil  connected 
with  scientific  research,  the  risks  which  beset 
such  inquiry,  and  the  limits  of  scientific  inves- 
tigations. There  lies  in  these  experiments  a 
warning  of  the  constant  need  for  falling  back 
not  only  on  the  laws  of  evidence,  but  also  on 
the  laws  of  reason.  The  mere  conception  of 
"spontaneous  generation, "  rigidly  interpreted, 
were  a  curiosity,  coming  wonderfully  near  a 
contradiction  of  scientific  thought  itself,  which 
seeks  for  causes,  and  repudiates  uncaused  oc- 
currences. There  may  naturally  enough  be  a 
discovery  of  the  chemical  elements  belong- 
ing to  definite  types  of  organism,  or  of  the 
form  and  measure  of  energy  operating  in  life. 
Even  when  surmising  u  that  possibly  we  may 
by  the  help  of  physical  principles,  especially 
that  of  the  dissipation  of  energy,  sometime  at- 
tain to  a  notion  of  what  constitutes  life,  mere 
vitality,  nothing  higher,"  Professor  Tait  has 
thought  it  needful  to  add,  "but  let  no  one 
imagine  that,  should  we  ever  penetrate  this 
mystery,  we  shall  thereby  be  enabled  to  pro- 
duce, except  from  life,  even  the  lowest  form 


66  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

of  life."  *  If  it  were  suggested  that  physico- 
chemical  elements  could  originate  life,  chem- 
istry would  easily  supply  the  ingredients.  If 
it  were  hinted  that  reliance  might  be  placed 
exclusively  on  the  action  of  air  or  of  heat  for 
producing  living  organism  from  inorganic  mat- 
ter, this  were  to  fall  back  on  the  old  elemen- 
tal philosophy  of  ancient  Greece,  which  the 
thought  of  Greece  easily  repudiated  without 
the  aid  of  experimental  science. 

Attention  is,  however,  here  concentrated 
on  the  failure  of  these  experiments  meant  to 
establish  "spontaneous  generation/'  and  in 
this  failure  we  find  illustration  of  the  fact  that 
supposed  conflicts  between  science  and  relig- 
ion are  often  misunderstandings  and  nothing 
more,  based  on  unreliable  experiments  or  un- 
warranted expectations. 

One  other  fact  deserves  to  be  recorded  and 
placed  in  companionship  with  that  just  stated, 
that  some  of  the  alleged  conflicts  between  sci- 
ence and  religion  are  delusively  so  described, 
on  account  of  misunderstanding  or  misrepre- 
sentation of  religion.  They  are  fictitious  ar- 
ticles, requiring  to  be  properly  branded,  and 
quietly  laid  aside.  A  single  illustration  may 

•  Recent  Advances  in  Physical  Science,  p.  24. 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        67 

suffice,  taken  from  Dr.  Draper's  History  of  the 
Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science,  which  is 
easily  accessible,  and  reasonably  claims  some 
attention  in  connection  with  the  present  sub- 
ject. The  criticism  here  offered  is  not  meant 
to  carry  a  general  condemnation  of  the  book. 
This  work  includes  a  vast  deal  more  than  its 
title  suggests;  in  the  midst  of  much  that  is 
extraneous,  there  is  not  a  little  of  valuable 
historical  matter  written  in  a  clear  and  at- 
tractive style.  The  book  is,  however,  in 
many  parts  misleading,  often  by  its  style 
suggesting  that  the  author  has  allowed  him- 
self to  be  carried  away  in  his  eagerness  to 
make  out  serious  conflict.  The  plan  of  the 
book  is  hardly  compatible  with  fairness.  This 
may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the  grounds 
for  selecting  illustrations  of  Christianity.  Our 
author  says,  "  In  speaking  of  Christianity  ref- 
erence is  generally  made  to  the  Roman  Church, 
partly  because  its  adherents  compose  the  ma- 
jority of  Christendom,  partly  because  its  de- 
mands are  the  most  pretentious,  and  partly 
because  it  has  commonly  sought  to  enforce 
those  demands  by  the  civil  power."*  In 
view  of  these  explanations,  it  may  be  in  a 

*  Preface  x. 


68  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

sense  satisfactory,  as  suggesting  more  har- 
mony between  science  and  religion  than  the 
general  tenor  of  the  book  conveys,  that  Pro- 
fessor Draper  has  "had  little  to  say"  respect- 
ing the  Protestant  and  Greek  Churches.  But 
the  reasons  for  making  the  Roman  division  of 
the  Church  representative  of  the  whole  are 
far  from  satisfactory.  It  is  as  if  one  were 
bent  on  fighting,  but  determined  always  to  se- 
lect the  weakest  antagonist  to  be  found.  Nor 
is  the  case  improved  by  the  defence  offered. 
Dr.  Draper  says,  "  In  thus  treating  the  sub- 
ject, it  has  not  been  necessary  to  pay  much 
regard  to  more  moderate  or  intermediate  opin- 
ions, for,  though  they  may  be  intrinsically  of 
great  value,  in  conflicts  of  this  kind  it  is  not 
with  the  moderates,  but  with  the  extremists, 
that  the  impartial  reader  is  mainly  concerned. 
Their  movements  determine  the  issue."  *  This 
is,  I  think,  an  unwise  conclusion.  Extrem- 
ists may  determine  the  erratic  deflections  of  a 
movement;  they  do  not  decide  its  issues.  They 
discover  the  heat,  rather  than  the  thought,  in- 
volved in  intellectual  conflict.  They  contrib- 
ute to  vortex  movement,  rather  than  onward. 
In  consequence  of  his  plan  of  procedure, 

•  Preface  x. 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        69 

Dr.  Draper  gives  often  a  misleading  view  of 
the  relative  positions  of  religion  and  science. 
A  reference  to  Chapter  VI.  will  afford  illus- 
tration. The  subject  is,  "  Conflict  Respecting 
the  Nature  of  the  World.'7  The  two  promi- 
nent contrasts  placed  at  the  head  of  this  chap- 
ter are  these: — "  Scriptural  view  of  the  world; 
the  earth  a  flat  surface:  scientific  view;  the 
earth  a  globe."  These  are,  indeed,  complete 
contrasts;  but  the  question  is,  Are  they  accu- 
rately stated  ?  Is  there  any  warrant  for  say- 
ing that  Scripture  teaches  that  the  earth  is  a 
flat  surface  ?  Most  Bible  readers  of  the  pres- 
ent day  will  take  this  as  quite  a  discovery. 
That  there  was  long  and  earnest  discussion  of 
the  question  whether  the  earth  was  flat  or  a 
globe,  is  certain.  But  it  is  erroneous  to  refer 
to  Scripture  as  the  source  of  the  former  posi- 
tion. The  opening  of  the  chapter  sufficiently 
disposes  of  the  suggestion.  Dr.  Draper  says, 
-"  An  uncritical  observation  of  the  aspect  of 
nature  persuades  us  that  the  earth  is  an  ex- 
tended level  surface  which  sustains  the  dome 
of  the  sky,  a  firmament  dividing  the  waters 
above  from  the  waters  beneath;  that  the  heav- 
enly bodies — the  sun,  the  moon,  the  stars — 
pursue  their  way  moving  from  east  to  west, 


70  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

their  insignificant  size,  and  motion  round  the 
motionless  earth,  proclaiming  their  inferiority. 
Of  the  various  organic  forms  surrounding  man 
none  rival  him  in  dignity,  and  hence  he  seems 
justified  in  concluding  that  every  thing  has 
been  created  for  his  use — the  sun  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  him  light  by  day,  the  moon  and 
stars  by  night.  Comparative  theology  shows 
that  this  is  the  conception  of  nature  univer- 
sally adopted  in  the  early  phase  of  intellect- 
ual life.  It  is  the  belief  of  all  nations  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  in  the  beginning  of  their 
civilization."* 

In  determining  the  relations  of  religion  and 
science  it  is  impossible  to  accept  a  passage  so 
general,  and  full  of  mixed  references  as  this. 
There  is,  indeed,  no  reason  to  complain  of 
statements  as  to  the  general  impressions  re- 
sulting from  "an  uncritical  observation"  of 
nature,  and  of  the  testimony  which  may  be 
drawn  from  "comparative  theology."  Such 
references  are  to  be  valued,  as  belonging  to 
an  important  branch  of  inquiry;  but  they  are 
not  to  be  mixed  up  with  statements  concern- 

*  History  of  the  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science,  by  J.  W. 
Draper,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Professor  in  the  University  of  New  York, 
12  ed.,  p.  152. 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.         71 

ing  Scripture  teaching.  Such  commingling 
leads  to  confusion,  and  deprives  a  discussion 
of  historical  accuracy  and  scientific  precision. 
In  view  of  the  immense  practical,  as  well  as 
scientific  interests  involved,  it  is  needful  to 
guard  against  loose  statements  encouraging  a 
belief  in  conflict  between  religion  and  science, 
where  no  such  conflict  exists.  The  passage 
here  selected  is  taken  as  an  example,  and  its 
criticism  will  indicate  what  claims  religion  has 
a  right  to  make  upon  scientific  men  in  their 
management  of  such  discussions.  It  may  be 
that  with  equal  reason  a  similar  claim  can  be 
turned  upon  defenders  of  religion  in  view  of 
their  criticisms  of  scientific  discussions.  But 
the  real  value  of  such  investigations,  from 
whatever  side  they  come,  depends  upon  accu- 
rate and  guarded  statement.  It  is  to  be 
feared,  however,  that  Dr.  Draper's  theory 
that  "  extremists  determine  the  issue,'7  may 
tempt  him  to  favor  a  different  rule. 

To  state  that  the  scriptural  view  of  the 
world  is,  that  "  the  earth  is  a  flat  surface," 
is  misrepresentation.  And  the  variety  of 
form  into  which  this  statement  is  thrown 
throughout  the  chapter  makes  it  greatly 
worse.  Thus  our  author  speaks  of  "  the  flat 


72  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

figure  of  the  earth,  as  revealed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures,"* as  if  this  quasi-scientific  statement 
were  part  of  Bible  revelation.  Again  he 
speaks  of ' '  the  theological  doctrine  of  the  flat- 
ness of  the  earth "  being  irretrievably  over- 
thrown. *j*  Once  more,  where  speaking  of  the 
Copernican  system  of  astronomy,  he  speaks 
of  Copernicus  not  only  as  influenced  by  his 
exposure  to  punishment  from  the  Roman 
Church,  but  as  being  "  aware  that  his  doc- 
trines were  totally  opposed  to  revealed 
truth."J  These  successive  statements  in- 
volve additional  exaggeration. 

Our  author  gives  no  references  which  the 
reader  may  examine  for  himself.  There  can 
be  little  doubt  that  he  points  to  the  exceed- 
ingly grand  and  impressive  passage  at  the 
opening  of  the  book  of  Genesis.  But  in  that 
passage  there  is  nothing  to  support  the  state- 
ment that  "the  flat  figure  of  the  earth"  is 
part  of  Bible  revelation.  That  the  earth  has 
been  supposed  flat,  and  that  this  is  really 
taught  in  Scripture,  are  two  very  different 
things.  The  Bible  which  says,  that  "the 
earth  was  without  form  and  void,  and  dark- 

*  History  of  the  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science,  p.  163. 
t  Ib.  p.  165.  t  to-  P-  167. 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        73 

ness  was  upon  the  face  of  the  deep, "  and  re- 
cords the  will  of  the  Supreme  Ruler  at  a 
later  stage  in  these  words,  "  And  God  said 
let  the  waters  under  the  heaven  be  gathered 
together  into  one  place,  and  let  the  dry  land 
appear,"  *  does  something  quite  the  opposite 
'of  teaching  that  "  the  earth  is  a  flat  surface." 
Nor  do  the  Scriptures  teach  that  "the 
earth  sustains  the  dome  of  the  sky."  In  re- 
mote times  such  an  opinion  as  to  the  resting- 
place  for  the  great  dome  had  its  supporters. 
But  there  is  no  pretext  for  attributing  the 
teaching  of  this  to  the  Bible.  The  scriptural 
statement  is  "  God  made  the  firmament,  and 
divided  the  waters  which  were  under  the  fir- 
mament from  the  waters  which  were  above  the 
firmament;  and  it  was  so.  And  God  called 
the  firmament  Heaven."  There  is  no  reader 
i of  these  words,  even  if  he  have  only  "  an  un- 
critical observation  of  the  aspect  of  nature," 
who  can  suppose  that  the  "  firmament"  here 
means  ''the  dome  of  the  sky."  This  state- 
ment places  certain  waters  "  above  the  firm- 
ament," and  there  is  no  one  who  is  at  once 
a  reader  of  the  Bible,  and  an  observer  of  na- 
ture, who  thinks  of  the  clouds  as  above  the 

*  Genesis  i.  2,  9. 


74  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

sky;  but  every  one  knows  that  there  is  an 
expanse  which  bears  these  water  treasures 
far  up  from  the  earth's  surface.  The  word 
rendered  " firmament,"*  from  the  Yulgate 
firrnamentum,  really  means  "  expanse,"  and 
most  naturally  and  obviously  refers  to  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  the  earth,  upon 
which  the  clouds  are  borne  aloft,  and  carried 
to  and  fro.  Taking  into  account  the  want 
of  scientific  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  the 
earth  in  far  past  ages,  and  the  representa- 
tions inconsistent  with  facts  which  found  cur- 
rency, the  true  marvel  is  that  the  statements 
of  Scripture  so  simply  and  naturally  harmo- 
nize with  discoveries  not  made  till  the  six- 
teenth century  of  the  Christian  era.  This  is 
a  marvel  which  will  more  deeply  impress  us 
the  longer  it  is  pondered. 

If  we  extend  our  consideration  to  the  cruder 
notions  which  found  acceptance  in  the  dark 
ages,  such  as  that  to  which  Bruno  referred, 
that  the  earth  is  a  flat  surface,  supported  on 
pillars,  the  scriptural  evidence  pled  in  its 
favor  appears  grotesquely  inadequate.  The 
passages  are  these.  First  stands  Hannah's 

*  jpjyi,  Raqia,  from  yp-|,  to  spread  out 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        75 

outburst  of  devotional  feeling  on  the  occasion 
of  presenting  her  son  Samuel  before  the  Lord. 
In  magnifying  the  greatness  of  God,  she  says, 
"the  pillars  of  the  earth  are  the  Lord's,  and  he 
hath  set  the  world  upon  them.'7  *  Next  come 
the  utterances  of  Job,  when  enlarging  on  the 
power  of  the  Almighty.  In  one  of  his  replies 
to  his  irritating  counsellors,  when  speaking  of 
the  works  of  Jehovah,  he  says,  "  which  shak- 
eth  the  earth  out  of  her  place,  and  the  pillars 
thereof  tremble."  f  In  another  passage  of 
similar  construction,  he  says  of  God,  "  He 
hath  compassed  the  waters  with  bounds,  until 
the  day  and  night  come  to  an  end.  The  pil- 
lars of  heaven  tremble,  and  are  astonished  at 
his  reproof."  J  There  is  no  Bible  reader  who 
can  readily  fall  into  such  an  obvious  mistake 
as  to  treat  these  highly  figurative  utterances, 
as  if  they  were  formal  revelations  concerning 
the  structure  of  the  universe.  As  well  might 
we,  in  reading  the  words  of  Paul  concerning 
the  position  and  influence  of  prominent  disci- 
ples in  the  early  church,  in  which  he  says  that 
James,  Cephas,  and  John  "  seemed  to  be  pil- 
lars," proceed  to  deduce  from  this  statement 
the  revelation  that  the  spiritual  kingdom  is  a 

*  I  Samuel  ii.  8.  f  Job  «.  6.  J  Job  xxvi.  10,  11. 


76  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

flat  surface  on  which  are  based  the  pillars  up- 
holding the  heavenly  kingdom  into  which  the 
Saviour  has  entered. 

This  short  reference  to  the  structure  and 
relative  position  of  the  earth,  will  suffice  to 
illustrate  the  fact  that  in  dealing  with  the  al- 
leged conflicts  between  religion  and  science, 
it  is  needful  to  cast  aside  a  number  of  manu- 
factured difficulties,  which  do  not  arise  from 
legitimate  interpretation  of  Scripture.  The 
particular  criticism  here  introduced  is  adopted 
for  a  general  purpose, — to  lessen  complica- 
tions, and  secure  a  proper  understanding  of 
the  actual  relation  of  the  Bible  to  scientific 
research. 

From  a  very  early  period  in  the  history  of 
scientific  inquiry,  it  has  been  more  or  less 
clearly  recognized  that  the  Bible  is  not  a  sci- 
ence-revelation, but  a  revelation  of  religious 
truth  and  duty,  discovering  the  true  ideal  and 
destiny  of  man  in  fellowship  with  God.  Let 
us  have  it  kept  clear  on  both  sides,  that  there 
is  no  divine  revelation  of  scientific  truth.  Na- 
ture is  its  own  revelation,  and  the  only  rev- 
elation, whose  secrets  must  be  laboriously 
sought  out  by  successive  generations  of  in- 
vestigators, from  all  of  whom  is  required  pa- 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        77 

tient,  persevering  research,  with  undeviating 
and  single  love  of  truth.  Those  early  in- 
quirers who  found  themselves  in  painful  con- 
tact with  the  persecuting  power  of  the  Roman 
Church,  such  as  Galileo,  and  Bruno,  recog- 
nized to  some  extent  that  conflict  with  the 
Church  and  conflict  with  the  Bible  were  not 
exactly  identical.  And  those  of  us  who  are 
clearly  and  resolutely  on  the  side  of  religious 
faith  and  religious  life,  have  need  to  ponder 
this  lesson  of  history,  that  those  defending 
the  Bible  have  not  always  been  guided  by 
its  teaching  in  their  defence,  and  have  not 
always  fully  apprehended  the  Bible  teaching 
on  the  subject  with  which  their  efforts  were 
concerned. 

But  what  we  most  need  in  these  days  to 
keep  conspicuous  is  the  true  view  of  the  Bible 
as  a  professed  revelation  from  God.  It  does 
not  profess  to  be  a  revelation  of  facts  such  as 
scientific  appliances  are  adequate  to  ascertain, 
while  it  does  profess  to  discover  facts  both  as 
to  the  universe  and  as  to  man,  which  science 
can  not  approach.  It  is  not  a  history  of  the 
earth,  but  it  includes  within  it,  historical  rec- 
ords of  events  closely  connected  with  man's 
moral  and  spiritual  well-being.  It  does  not 


78  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

train  man  "  to  regard  himself  as  the  principal 
object  of  the  care  of  Nature  "; *  it  does  not  even 
suggest  thought  in  this  direction,  but  it  teaches 
that  God  cares  for  righteousness  more  than 
he  cares  for  material  things;  that  man  as  a 
being  of  flesh  and  blood  is  unspeakably  insig- 
nificant, his  life  being  "  even  a  vapor  that  ap- 
peareth  for  a  little  time,  and  then  vanisheth 
away  ";f  that  his  spiritual  life,  in  the  love  of 
God  and  in  fellowship  with  him,  is  immeasur- 
ably great,  the  purpose  of  the  Bible  concern- 
ing man,  as  revealed  by  Jesus  Christ,  God's 
Son,  being  this,  that  man  shall  be  like  to  God 
in  moral  purity. 

From  these  few  statements  it  may  readily 
appear  what  is  the  attitude  of  the  Bible  tow- 
ards science.  It  leaves  man  to  his  own  re- 
search for  the  structure  of  science  in  all  its 
divisions;  it  proffers  no  help  in  such  work; 
but  has  a  range  of  application  quite  beyond 
the  area  traversed  by  science. 

In  this  way  we  find  the  natural  interpreta- 
tion of  inevitable  conflicts  in  the  past,  which 
have  been  roughly  and  often  inaccurately  de- 
scribed as  conflicts  between  religion  and  sci- 

*  Conflict  between  Religion  and  Science,  p.  172. 
f  James  iv.  14. 


EXPERIENCE    FROM  PAST  CONFLICTS.        79 

ence.  These  conflicts  were  in  the  strictest 
sense  inevitable,  simply  because  thought  and 
discovery  have  been  progressive;  and  it  is  im- 
possible for  those  not  personally  engaged  in 
research  to  accept  without  reluctance  new  rep- 
resentations of  familiar  facts.  If  men  long 
continued  unwilling  to  admit  that  the  earth 
moves  round  the  sun,  and  that  the  rising  and 
setting  of  the  luminary  are  delusions,  while 
the  succession  of  light  and  darkness  is  real,  we 
can  not  wonder  at  this  slowness  of  assent,  or 
charge  it  to  the  power  of  religious  thought. 
The  conflict  was  not  between  religion  and  sci- 
ence, but  between  popular  notions  and  scien- 
tific observations.  Often  in  the  earlier  periods 
of  awakened  thought,  following  the  slumber 
of  the  middle  ages,  the  contest  accidentally 
wore  a  religious  aspect,  but  it  was  so  only 
because  the  higher  intelligence  and  the  gen- 
eral work  of  instruction  belonged  to  the  re- 
ligious orders. 

If,  however,  we  give  due  weight  to  histor- 
ical facts,  it  will  appear  that  the  rectification 
of  common  thought  as  to  the  form  of  the 
earth,  and  its  place  in  relation  to  the  heavenly 
bodies,  was  achieved  through  the  conflict  of 
a  later  science  with  an  earlier.  Science  has 


80  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

first  taught  one  thing,  and  then  abandoned  its 
old  positions  to  teach  something  different,  and 
if  religious  thought  was  at  times  found  in  the 
ranks  of  the  antagonists  of  change,  it  was  only 
as  the  popular  thought  was  opposed,  and  as 
all  had  been  placed  in  opposition  by  the  ear- 
lier forms  of  scientific  teaching.  We  rightly 
interpret  the  facts,  only  in  representing  that 
science  both  makes  its  own  difficulties  and 
clears  them;  first  presents  the  imperfect  or 
erroneous  views  which  are  to  be  swept  away, 
and  afterwards  trains  men  to  more  careful 
sifting  of  evidence  and  exercise  of  thought, 
thereby  clearing  and  widening  its  own  path. 
Thus  are  we  enabled  to  trace  the  bound- 
aries of  two  distinct  regions  of  thought,  closely 
related,  yet  clearly  separated.  Science  can 
not  do  the  work  of  religion,  nor  can  religion 
do  the  work  of  science.  Each  must  fulfil  its 
own  part,  and  abide  its  proper  tests.  Science 
has  its  own  place  and  its  own  task.  Religion 
will  simply  wait  upon  science,  leaving  it  to 
make  its  own  discoveries,  gladly  accepting  each 
one  of  them  as  it  is  established.  The  most 
reverend  students  of  the  Bible  do  not  regard 
it  as  a  revelation  presenting  a  key  to  scien- 
tific research;  though  they  do  not  hesitate  to 


EXPERIENCE   FROM  PAST   CONFLICTS.        81 

express  their  conviction  that  neither  in  ex- 
press statement,  nor  in  the  spirit  inculcated, 
does  it  place  itself  in  antagonism  to  the  search 
for  truth,  or  the  claims  of  any  conclusions 
which  can  be  legitimately  described  as  philo- 
sophical or  scientific.  But  its  upholders  press 
this  consideration  specially  on  scientific  men, 
that  the  Bible  has  this  title  to  be  regarded  as 
a  book  for  all  nations  and  for  all  ages,  that  it 
has  proved  itself  intelligible  to  men  in  ages 
the  least  enlightened,  and  has  also  maintained 
a  commanding  influence  in  ages  specially  dis- 
tinguished and  favored  by  the  advance  of 
science  and  the  widening  power  of  literature. 


LECTURE  III. 

INOKGANIC  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  UNIVEESE. 

jNT  view  of  the  wide  range  of  materials  at 
command,  and  the  limits  of  the  pres- 
ent inquiry,  there  is  need  for  some  definite 
method  of  selection,  which  may  secure  a 
careful,  though  necessarily  very  general  sur- 
vey of  the  whole  ground.  That  which  seems 
to  give  most  promise  of  meeting  these  re- 
quirements is  the  contemplation  in  order  of 
the  great  leading  conceptions  which  have  re- 
ceived prominence  within  recent  years  in  con- 
sequence of  continued  research  under  strictly 
scientific  methods.  These  may  be  said  to  con- 
stitute the  scientific  revolution  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  giving  occasion  for  recon- 
structing the  popular  conceptions  of  the 
universe.  They  claim  to  mark  the  truly 
scientific  period,  inaugurated  by  command 
of  instruments  never  before  within  reach, 
allowing  an  immense  advance  in  the  modes 
of  research,  and  placing  the  secrets  of  na- 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  83 

ture  within  compass  of  human  observation 
as  they  had  never  been  before.  The  Intel 
lectual  conditions  for  observation  and  in- 
ference no  doubt  remain  simply  what  they 
have  been;  the  laws  of  intelligent  inquiry  are 
the  same,  determining  sufficiency  of  evidence, 
and  trustworthiness  in  reasoning;  but  the 
range  of  observation  has  been  indefinitely 
multiplied,  and  things  transcending  previous 
conjecture  have  become  matters  of  certain 
observation.  The  telescope  and  the  micro- 
scope provided  for  this  revolution.  They 
brought  the  universe  within  range  as  it  had 
never  previously  been,  and  thus  making  an 
enormous  addition  to  the  sum  of  human 
knowledge,  suggested  new  modes  of  con- 
templating and  explaining  the  facts  which 
had  been  familiar  through  all  the  ages. 
There  can  be  no  reversal  of  all  this — no 
return  on  the  old  methods.  Nor  can  there 
be  reversal  in  the  sense  of  overturning  pres- 
ently recognized  conclusions.  There  are  in- 
deed hosts  of  theories  of  which  it  may  be 
safely  predicted  that  they  will  be  overturned 
and  forgotten;  but  a  veritable  knowledge  has 
been  acquired,  which  will  certainly  be  pre- 
served among  the  treasures  of  the  race.  We 


84  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

now  know  the  constituent  elements  of  many 
forms  of  existence,  and  the  laws  which  deter- 
mine change  and  continuance,  as  these  were 
never  previously  known;  and  thus  there  has 
been  vastly  extended  for  us  the  range  of  rec- 
ognized facts. 

To  this  advance,  the  whole  human  race  has 
to  adapt  itself.  It  is  not  merely  one  class  of 
men,  but  all;  not  merely  one  department  of 
thought,  but  all  departments  which  must  ad- 
just themselves  to  this  new  order  of  things. 
Religious  thought  is  not  thrown  into  any  sin- 
gular position;  it  merely  shares  in  the  common 
experience,  that  is,  the  common  advantage. 
And  we  may  say  religious  thought  is  most 
prepared  for  the  mighty  revolution.  This 
startling  success  in  unlocking  the  mysteries 
of  nature ;  this  sudden  accession  to  the  wealth 
of  our  ideas,  apt  to  have  an  intoxicating  ef- 
fect upon  those  who  value  science  and  noth- 
ing higher,  awakens  reverence  and  gratitude 
in  the  religious  thinker.  The  greater  the  ap- 
plication of  human  intelligence  to  the  study 
of  nature,  and  the  greater  the  discoveries 
which  reward  such  labor,  so  much  greater  be- 
comes the  demand  upon  intelligence  in  ac- 
counting for  the  origin  and  continuance  of  the 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS. 


universe,  involving  innumerable  phases  of 
tivity  never  to  be  witnessed  by  ordinary  ob- 
servers who  are  absorbed  in  their  daily  avoca- 
tions. The  supernatural  is  not  more  remote 
from  us  by  such  discoveries  as  science  can 
boast,  but  is  in  reality  brought  nearer.  The 
fancy  that  enlarged  knowledge  of  the  natural, 
is  steadily  driving  before  it  all  recognition  of 
the  supernatural,  is  one  of  which  thinking  men 
will  by  and  by  be  ashamed.  That  men  should 
consider  the  discovery  of  the  component  parts 
of  certain  forms  of  existence,  or  of  the  laws  of 
well  known  movements,  as  a  final  disposal 
of  the  demands  of  intelligence,  only  shows 
how  little  the  intellect  of  inquirers  has  been 
prepared  for  appreciation  of  the  full  demands 
of  reason.  In  this  connection,  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  most  profoundly  scien- 
tific, have  been  the  most  cautious,  least  in- 
clined to  boast  of  discovery,  or  to  antici- 
pate the  overthrow  of  the  deeper  convictions 
of  the  moral  and  spiritual  life,  which,  as  the 
necessaries  of  life  in  all  ages,  are  least  liable 
to  be  touched  by  any  thing  belonging  to  the 
region  of  science.  Even  after  every  allowance 
has  been  made  for  sanguine  and  passionate 
temperament,  and  for  reaction  against  unten- 


86  SCIENCE  AND   RELIGION. 

able  forms  of  religious  belief  among  opponents 
of  religion,*  the  award  can  not  be  otherwise 
than  suggested.  The  facts  are  already  on 
record  bearing  on  the  most  testing  period, — • 
the  transition  from  an  old  and  restricted 
knowledge,  to  a  new  and  greatly  enlarged 
knowledge  of  the  universe, — and  the  roll  of 
names  standing  high  in  the  annals  of  science, 
while  devoted  to  religious  faith  and  practice, 
may  be  accepted  as  a  reasonable  forecast  of 
coming  results. f 

That  greater  knowledge  of  nature  by  dis- 
covery of  the  natural  causes  in  operation,  in- 
tensifies the  rational  demand  for  recognition 
of  Supernatural  Intelligence,  is  the  position 
to  be  maintained  throughout  this  argument. 
The  most  rigid  test  of  this  position  is  to  be 
found  in  the  outstanding  scientific  conceptions 
concerning  inorganic  and  organic  nature,  and 
the  contrasts  recognized  between  lower  and 
higher  organisms.  The  order  most  suitable 
for  application  of  this  test  is  progress  up- 
wards from  the  most  subordinate  forms  of 

*  These  allowances  may  well  be  made  for  Professor  Clifford, 
one  of  the  most  extravagant  assailants  of  religious  faith. 

f  Professor  Tait  in  answer  to  Mr.  Fronde  has  advanced  the 
evidence.  International  Review,  Nov.  1878,  vol.  v.  No.  6.  The 
collected  papers  have  been  republished,  Atlas  Series,  No.  11. 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  87 

existence  to  the  most  complex  organism.  A 
beginning  will,  therefore,  be  made  with  the 
inorganic  world,  after  which  lower  organisms 
may  be  considered,  after  that  the  relative 
place  of  higher  organisms,  and  finally  the 
whole  class  of  questions  concerning  the  pow- 
ers and  requirements  of  mind.  In  each  of 
these  relations,  I  desire  to  inquire  into  the 
reasonableness  of  our  acknowledgment  of  the 
supernatural. 

As  the  world  presents  a  vast  range  of  in- 
organic existence,  we  have  to  consider  the 
most  prominent  scientific  conceptions  con- 
cerning inorganic  elements,  as  these  afford 
a  general  view  of  the  material  structure  of 
the  earth. 

Concentrating  on  this  region  of  observa- 
tion, and  taking  no  account,  meanwhile,  of 
the  manifold  phases  of  life,  there  are  two 
forms  of  existence  to  be  recognized,  Matter 
and  Energy.  Matter  is  solid,  visible,  tangi- 
ble; Energy  is  invisible  and  intangible,  but 
measurable  by  the  work  it  is  capable  of  do- 
ing. The  one  may  be  represented  as  the 
solid  inert  mass,  the  other  as  the  moving 
power  whose  action  is  the  source  of  continual 
change.  This  duality  we  must  regard  as  es- 


88  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

sential  to  the  structure  of  the  universe,  for  it 
is  impossible  to  identify  the  two,  so  as  to  re- 
gard the  world  as  merely  a  mass  of  matter. 
This  duality  is  now  commonly  admitted  as 
the  result  of  recent  scientific  investigations. 
To  quote  the  words  of  Professor  Tait, — "It 
is  only  within  comparatively  recent  years  that 
it  has  been  generally  recognized  that  there  is 
something  else  in  the  physical  universe  which 
possesses  to  the  full  as  high  a  claim  to  objec- 
tive reality  as  matter  possesses,  though  it  is 
by  no  means  so  tangible,  and  therefore  the 
conception  of  it  was  much  longer  in  forcing 
itself  upon  the  human  mind."  *  This  is  En- 
ergy. "  Just  as  gold,  lead,  oxygen,  etc.,  are 
different  kinds  of  matter,  so  sound,  light, 
heat,  etc.,  are  now  ranked  as  different  forms 
of  energy."  f 

Here,  then,  is  one  of  the  conspicuous  re- 
sults of  recent  scientific  research  to  which  all 
our  thoughts  and  theories  need  to  adapt 
themselves.  And  it  must  be  obvious  with- 
out argumentation,  that  theological  thought 
will  not  experience  any  serious  shock,  or 

*  Recent  Advances  in  Physical  Science,  by  P.  G.  Tait,  Profes- 
sor of  Natural  Philosophy,  University  of  Edinburgh,  p.  17. 
f  Ib.  p.  2. 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  89 

even  jolt,  in  passing  over  to  this  new  line 
of  rails  prepared  for  it. 

Taking  these  two,  Matter  and  Energy,  as 
distinct,  let  us  concentrate  for  a  little  upon 
each  of  them  separately.  Let  us  first  turn 
attention  upon  MATTER.  This  form  of  ex- 
istence is  most  easily  contemplated,  as  most 
directly  presenting  itself  to  observation.  A 
piece  of  metal  may  best  serve  for  illustra- 
tion, such  as  the  iron  out  of  which  we  form 
so  many  of  our  industrial  implements.  This 
metal  may  be  mingled  through  earth  or  rock; 
it  may  be  held  in  solution  in  water,  or  made 
to  flow  out  in  liquid  form  from  the  furnace;  it 
may  be  hardened  either  in  the  more  brittle 
form  of  cast  iron,  or  in  the  more  rigid  form 
known  as  malleable;  but  through  all  these 
changes  the  material  is  the  same.  Further, 
suppose  we  were  to  receive  a  quantity  of  ore, 
and  for  the  sake  of  experiment  were  to  have 
part  presented  in  each  one  of  these  forms,  the 
quantity  would  continue  exactly  the  same 
as  was  originally  received.  To  quote  again 
from  the  same  author: — "The  grand  test  of 
the  reality  of  what  we  call  Matter,  the  proof 
that  it  has  an  objective  existence,  is  its  in- 
destructibility and  uncreatability — if  the  term 


90  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

may  be  used — by  any  process  at  the  com- 
mand of  man.  The  value  of  this  test  to  mod- 
ern chemistry  can  scarcely  be  estimated.  In 
fact  we  can  barely  believe  that  there  could 
have  existed  an  exact  science  of  chemistry 
had  it  not  been  for  the  early  recognition  of 
this  property  of  matter;  nor  in  fact  would 
there  be  the  possibility  of  a  chemical  anal- 
ysis, supposing  that  we  had  not  the  assurance 
by  enormously  extended  series  of  previous 
experiments,  that  no  portion  of  matter,  how- 
ever small,  goes  out  of  existence,  or  comes 
into  existence  in  any  operation  whatever. 
If  the  chemist  were  not  certain  that  at  the 
end  of  his  operations,  provided  he  has  taken 
care  to  admit  nothing  and  to  let  nothing  es- 
cape, the  contents  of  his  vessels  must  be  pre- 
cisely the  same  in  quantity  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  experiment,  there  could  be  no 
such  thing  as  chemical  analysis. "* 

If  now  we  press  our  inquiry  further,  seek- 
ing some  explanation  of  the  ultimate  nature 
or  structure  of  matter,  that  is,  the  common 
physical  characteristics  of  matter  in  all  its 
forms,  whether  air,  water,  or  solid  mass,  sci- 
ence has  no  certain  answer  to  give.  There  is 

*  Recent  Advances  in  Physical  Science,  p.  14. 


INORGANIC f  ELEMENTS.  91 

no  theory  of  the  ultimate  structure  of  matter 
which  has  secured  general  acceptance.  On 
the  contrary,  there  is  the  acknowledgment 
that  the  complexity  of  the  problem  is  so  great 
as  completely  to  baffle  the  present  resources 
of  science.  There  have  been  discussions,  and 
careful  investigations  as  to  the  divisibility  of 
matter,  and  it  has  been  generally  admitted  on 
rational  grounds,  that  there  must  be  in  all 
matter  particles  or  atoms  so  minute  as  to  be 
quite  beyond  the  range  of  the  microscope. 
This  has  led  to  the  acceptance  of  an  atomic 
theory  as  in  one  form  or  another  applicable  to 
the  structure  of  matter,  belief  in  such  particles 
or  molecules  being  a  natural  result  of  scientific 
procedure.  I  say  belief,  for  the  existence  of 
such  ultimate  atoms  is  not  established  on 
experimental  evidence,  and  yet  is  generally 
acknowledged;  for  it  is  clearly  enough  recog- 
nized that  there  is  a  region  of  faith  for  sci- 
ence, as  for  theology,  just  as  there  must  be 
for  all  ordinary  exercise  of  human  intelligence. 
Besides  the  actual  divisibility  of  matter,  we 
have  in  the  same  connection  to  consider  its 
compressibility,  for  the  recognized  facts  as  to 
compression  of  iron,  for  example,  or  of  any 
metal,  seem  to  imply  that  there  are  certain 


92  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

particles  related  to  each  other,  which  can  be 
pressed  in  upon  each  other,  or  brought  into 
nearer  proximity.  There  is,  however,  a  clear 
limit  to  compressibility,  as  there  is  to  divisi- 
bility of  matter.  Even  if  this  be  granted, 
however,  we  are  still  without  a  scientific  ac- 
count of  the  ultimate  structure  of  matter. 
This  is  still  a  perplexity  to  be  handed  on  to 
future  workers.  There  may,  indeed,  seem  to 
be  promise  of  aid  in  the  analysis  of  different 
forms  of  matter,  as  in  the  reduction  of  water 
to  its  constituent  gases  by  the  action  of  a  gal- 
vanic battery;  but  such  processes,  however 
rich  in  suggest! veness,  are  insufficient  to  ad- 
vance the  main  inquiry.  It  is  oftentimes  in 
this  very  class  of  experiments,  that  science  at 
once  manifests  its  power,  and  discovers  the 
limits  which  encircle  and  restrain  its  efforts. 
It  can  decompose,  what  it  can  not  recompose, 
thus  leaving  difficulties  as  perplexing  as  be- 
fore. And  besides,  even  when  by  analysis 
the  ultimate  parts  or  chemical  constituents, 
of  compound  substances  have  been  discovered, 
science  is  unable  to  demonstrate  that  the  con- 
stituent elements  are  ultimately  composed  of 
distinct  atoms,  as  for  example  that  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  are  so  constituted.  We  are 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  93 

thus  without  a  science  of  the  ultimate  nature 
of  matter.  There  is,  indeed,  the  suggestion 
of  Sir  William  Thomson  that  matter  of  all 
kinds  may  be  regarded  as  of  a  common  na- 
ture, only  variously  compounded,  filling  space 
in  a  fluid  state,  and  that  its  compressibility 
can  be  accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that 
its  ultimate  forms  are  vortex  rings  capable  of 
compression  and  expansion  like  an  india-rub- 
ber ball;  but  this  can  not  be  regarded  other- 
wise than  as  a  bold  conjecture,  beset  with  a 
host  of  difficulties  both  physical  and  mathe- 
matical which  neither  Thomson  nor  any  of 
his  fellow- workers  in  physical  science,  pro- 
fesses to  have  yet  grappled  with. 

There  are  thus  before  us  the  chief  results  of- 
physical  science,  as  to  the  nature  of  MATTER, 
when  we  specify  that  it  is  indestructible,  that 
it  consists  of  ultimate  molecules  or  atoms,  and 
that  its  compressibility  is  to  be  explained  by 
pressure  upon  such  atoms,  or  cohesion,  or  com- 
parative closeness  of  relation  between  them, 
this  being  greater  hi  solids,  less  in  liquids,  and 
least  in  gases. 

From  the  structure  of  matter,  we  are  led 
by  science  to  the  consideration  of  ENERGY,  as 
distinct  from  matter.  These  two  stand  in 


94  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

some  respect  in  contrast  with  each  other. 
In  taking  a  survey  of  the  physical  aspects  of 
the  world,  we  can  not  limit  attention  to  the 
mere  mass,  or  to  questions  bearing  on  its 
structure.  Observation  must  now  be  turned 
on  the  perpetual  change  going  on  in  form, 
arrangement,  and  distribution  of  materials. 
There  is  need  for  a  science  of  all  this,  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  the  perpetual  round  of 
change  may  be  reduced  to  order  by  reference 
to  causality  and  the  laws  of  its  operation. 
Thus  we  are  introduced  to  our  ordinary  con- 
ceptions concerning  position,  that  is,  the  sit- 
uation or  place  of  objects,  or  of  masses  of 
material,  or  even  of  worlds,  to  each  other; 
motion,  or  change  of  position,  modifying  or 
altering  the  relations  of  objects;  and  force, 
that  is  the  relative  amount  or  proportion  of 
energy  at  work  for  the  accomplishment  of  such 
changes  as  those  already  mentioned.  In  these 
connections  we  are  introduced  to  recently 
formulated  doctrines  of  energy,  reached  in 
searching  for  "  the  cause  which  alters  or  tends 
to  alter  a  body's  natural  state  of  rest/7  as  this 
problem  was  indicated  in  Newton's  first  law  of 
motion.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  inquiry,  atten- 
tion was  directed  mainly  on  the  active  forces 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  95 

of  nature,  as  these  are  recognized  in  operation, 
admitting  of  calculation  as  to  rate  of  move- 
ment on  the  one  hand,  and  relative  amount 
of  force  on  the  other.  Computations  of  this 
kind  were  necessarily  involved  in  research  con- 
nected with  the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  When  astronomical  theory  had  been 
matured  and  a  truly  scientific  understanding 
of  the  solar  system  had  been  reached,  physical 
science  had  next  to  deal  with  the  more  gen- 
eral problem  raised  by  the  contemplated  forces 
of  nature,  having  a  reference  at  once  wider 
and  more  minute.  It  is  not  possible  here  to 
do  more  than  give  a  very  summary  view  of 
the  doctrine  of  energy,  its  mutations,  dissipa- 
tion, and  conservation,  as  developed  through 
study  of  the  laws  of  gravitation,  electricity, 
light,  heat,  etc.,  and  now  generally  accepted. 
An  outline  will,  however,  suffice  for  an  under- 
standing of  the  general  conclusions. 

Energy  is  the  term  now  employed  to  des- 
ignate every  form  of  power  belonging  to  the 
physical  world  capable  of  doing  work,  and  of 
being  estimated  according  to  the  comparative 
amount  of  work  it  can  perform.  The  whole 
phenomena  of  motion  thus  belong  to  this  de- 
partment of  inquiry.  The  first  distinction 


96  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

here  has  been  described  as  the  difference  be 
tween  energy  of  position  and  energy  of  motion* 
Both  of  these  must  be  taken  into  account  in 
order  to  have  a  full  view  of  the  facts.  ENER- 
GY OF  POSITION,  is  illustrated  by  a  water-head, 
or  reservoir,  where  an  accumulation  of  water 
is  laid  up  in  store,  ready  to  be  drawn  upon  for 
motive  power  when  machinery  set  up  in  a  po- 
sition somewhat  lower  is  to  be  brought  into  ac- 
tion and  made  to  do  the  work  for  which  it  has 
been  constructed.  ENERGY  OF  MOTION  is  seen 
when  the  storehouse  of  water  is  opened  and 
the  rush  of  the  current  sweeps  along  the  pre- 
pared channel  descending  upon  the  great 
wheel,  which  sets  in  motion  the  whole  ma- 
chinery. In  such  a  case  as  this,  the  amount 
of  work  done  by  the  revolutions  of  the  great 
wheel  is  an  exact  measure  of  the  amount 
of  water  which  has  passed  to  a  lower  level. 
Or  let  us  suppose  there  is  only  a  limited  sup- 
ply in  the  water-head,  and  that  there  are  no 
feeders,  but  that  the  streamlets  and  springs 
from  which  it  is  supplied,  have  ceased  to  flow, 
and  let  us  suppose  that  the  mill  comes  to  a 
stand  because  of  failure  of  motive  power,  the 
amount  of  work  done  up  to  that  moment  is 
the  measure  of  the  energy  stored  in  the  water- 

•  See  Appendix  HE. 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  97 

head  before  the  sluice  was  opened.  This  il- 
lustration indicates  the  mode  of  calculation  to 
be  applied  to  energy  in  all  its  forms,  including 
the  great  forces  of  nature,  before  which  hu- 
man power  is  as  nothing.  Taking  thus  the 
correlatives  position  and  motion,  we  may  re- 
gard the  former  as  preparation  for  the  latter, 
for,  as  Professor  Balfour  Stewart  has  said, 
"  It  is  the  fate  of  all  kinds  of  energy  of  po- 
sition to  be  ultimately  converted  into  energy 
of  motion.'7'  *  On  this  account,  energy  of  mo- 
tion most  naturally  exemplifies  what  we  un- 
derstand by  energy;  but  on  the  other  hand 
what  has  been  called  the  energy  of  position 
must  be  regarded  as  a  power  distinctly  calcu- 
lable. If  a  stone  be  thrown  into  the  air,  the 
energy  expended  in  propelling  it  to  a  certain 
height,  is  the  exact  measure  of  the  energy  ex- 
pended in  its  descent.  There  is  no  need  for 
entering  here  upon  the  calculations  of  the  re- 
lation between  energy  and  velocity,  showing 
the  exact  proportion  of  the  one  to  the  other, 
or  the  ratio  of  increase  according  to  velocity, 
which  is  expressed  in  the  formula  "that  the 
energy  varies  as  the  square  of  the  velocity," 
giving  us  an  exact  measure  of  force. 

*  The  Conservation  of  Energy,  by  Balfour  Stewart,  p.  26. 


98  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

Aided  by  the  conceptions  of  position  and 
motion,  we  take  the  next  step  when  we  ad- 
vance to  transmutation  or  conversion  of  energy. 
What  is  made  visible  to  us  by  motion  is  the 
transference  of  energy  from  one  object  or  por- 
tion of  matter  to  another.  And  this  is  the 
sole  explanation  of  what  occurs.  There  is  no 
such  thing  known  to  physical  science  as  the 
origin  or  creation  of  energy;  all  that  is  recog- 
nized is  the  disappearance  of  energy  from  one 
position  and  its  appearance  in  another.  If 
work  has  been  done,  energy  was  somewhere 
stored  capable  of  doing  it;  a  transmutation  has 
taken  place ;  and  the  work  accomplished  is  the 
record  of  the  process.  In  recognition  of  this, 
every  machine  is  merely  a  more  or  less  skilful 
contrivance  for  transmuting  energy  into  a  form 
more  convenient  or  suitable  for  human  pur- 
poses. The  intelligence  of  man  simply  rec- 
ognizes the  law  of  transmutation,  and  deals 
with  the  problems  which  arise  connected  with 
the  mechanical  arrangements  facilitating  the 
process. 

We  next  advance  a  further  step,  only  to 
embrace  another  phase  of  the  same  truth,— 
the  complement  of  what  has   been   already 
stated, — that   is,    the   conservation   of  energy. 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  99 

As  we  have  seen,  all  that  appears  m  motion, 
is  transmutation  or  conversion  of  energy;  ac- 
cordingly it  follows,  that  there  is  change  of 
position,  but  no  destruction  of  energy,  or  ab- 
solute disappearance  of  it  from  existence. 
This  generalization  is  illustrated  by  a  most 
attractive  series  of  observations,  introducing 
to  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  heat. 
The  natural  tendency  of  ordinary  observation 
is  to  favor  the  opinion  that  when  work  has 
been  done,  energy  is  spent  or  lost.  And  this 
popular  notion,  which  has  a  kind  of  accuracy, 
in  so  far  as  it  is  needful  to  make  fresh  draughts 
upon  available  resources,  is  favored  by  refer- 
ence to  the  economy  of  our  bodily  existence 
constantly  renewing  its  demand  for  fresh  food 
supply.  But  this  popular  tendency  is  easily 
explained  by  the  circumstance  that  ordinary 
observation  makes  much  more  account  of  the 
phenomena  of  motion,  than  of  the  develop- 
ment of  heat  as  a  direct  consequence.  The 
machinist  can  not,  indeed,  afford  to  make  lit- 
tle of  the  consequences  of  friction;  but  the 
ordinary  observer  makes  much  more  of  mass, 
and  complication  of  mechanical  contrivance, 
and  velocity  of  movement.  From  this  he 
passes  easily  to  the  fabric,  or  other  produc- 


100  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

tion,  sent  forth;  and  then  he  may  occupy 
himself  with  calculations  bearing  on  the  ex- 
penditure for  coals  and  labor,  along  with  tear 
and  wear  of  machinery.  But  scientific  obser- 
vation has  concentrated  much  more  on  the 
evolution  of  heat,  and  out  of  this  has  come 
the  completed  theory  of  the  laws  of  energy. 
In  this  way,  it  became  matter  of  distinct  cal- 
culation that  friction  and  percussion  convert 
energy  into  heat. 

Along  with  these  observations  we  have  to 
remark  upon  an  attendant  conclusion,  which 
has  an  important  bearing  on  all  speculation 
concerning  the  destiny  of  the  universe.  I 
refer  to  the  fact  that  transmutation  of  energy 
involves  a  deterioration  and  dissipation  of  en- 
ergy. As  in  the  history  of  energy,  improved 
position  adds  to  the  advantage  for  the  doing 
of  work,  so  transmutation  tends  to  diminish  the 
advantage  or  utility  of  the  energy  for  human 
purposes.  Thus  the  energy  expended  in  work- 
ing a  machine  gives  return  in  a  product  of 
recognized  value,  but  the  energy  spent  in  con- 
tending with  friction  generates  heat  which  is 
of  no  practical  value  in  respect  of  accomplished 
work.  Or  as  the  latter  fact  has  been  stated 
by  Professor  Balfour  Stewart,  friction  proves 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  101 

"  itself  to  be,  not  the  destroyer  of  energy,  but 
merely  the  converter  of  it  into  some  less  ap- 
parent, and  perhaps  less  useful  form."  *  In 
this  connection,  scientific  observation  was  di- 
rected upon  the  appearance  of  heat  simulta- 
neously with  the  disappearance  of  visible  en- 
ergy. Gradually  the  conception  dawned  upon 
scientific  observers  that  heat  is  a  form  of  mo- 
tion,  and  this  has  found  general  acceptance, 
although  it  is  impossible  to  give  direct  proof 
of  the  doctrine.  The  conclusion  has  been 
supported  by  all  the  experiments  of  Davis, 
Rumford,  Joule,  Colding,  and  Helmholtz. 
This  conception  having  been  launched  as 
to  the  probable  explanation  of  heat,  it  im- 
mediately found,  in  accordance  with  the  anal- 
ogies of  scientific  thought,  a  greatly  extended 
circle  of  application.  Light  and  sound  came 
to  be  classified  with  heat,  as  only  different 
forms  of  motion.  It  would  involve  too  ex^ 
tended  a  range  to  include  here  a  detailed 
account  of  these  experiments,  or  to  consider 
what  is  involved  in  dissipation  of  energy,  as 
bearing  upon  a  still  wider  aspect  of  the  order 
of  things  in  the  universe.  I  must,  therefore, 
be  content  with  the  reference  just  given  to 

•  The  Conservation  of  Energy,  p.  36. 


102  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

the  conception  of  heat  as  a  form  of  molecular 
motion;  and  in  doing  so  may  revert  to  the 
consideration  already  adduced,  that  this  is 
another  doctrine  of  scientific  belief,  of  which; 
there  is  a  constant  tendency  to  increase  the 
number,  as  science  widens  the  range  of  its 
inquiries  and  speculations. 

The  outstanding  general  results  of  science 
as  to  the  nature  of  energy  are  now  before  us. 
All  observations  concerning  motion  only  pre- 
sent to  view  transmutations  of  energy,  all  of 
them  imply  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the 
origin  of  energy,  and  no  such  thing  as  its  ex- 
tinction. There  is  indeed  a  constant  tendency 
towards  the  degradation  of  energy,  and  a  con- 
stant equalizing  process  which  may  bring  to 
an  end  the  present  order  of  things  in  the  uni- 
verse. But  the  leading  scientific  conception 
with  which  we  have  specially  to  deal  is  that 
expressed  in  the  phrase,  "Conservation  of  en- 
ergy "  which  must  be  regarded  as  completing 
our  view  of  inorganic  existence  along  with  the 
other  doctrine  of  the  indestructibility  of  mat- 
ter. As  Professor  Tait  has  expressed  it,— 
"  The  grand  principle  of  conservation  of  en- 
ergy, which  asserts  that  no  portion  of  energy 
can  be  put  out  of  existence,  and  no  amount 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  103 

of  energy  can  be  brought  into  existence  by 
any  process  at  our  command,  is  simply  a 
statement  of  the  invariability  of  the  quantity 
of  energy  in  the  universe,  —  a  companion 
statement  to  that  of  the  invariability  of  the 
quantity  of  matter.'7  * 

The  position  is  now  reached  at  which  it  be- 
comes possible  to  combine  the  results  of  sci- 
entific research  as  to  matter  and  energy  into 
a  harmonious  unity,  with  which  to  test  the 
view  of  the  world  recognized  by  religious 
thought.  Religion  as  an  intelligent  and  de- 
votional acknowledgment  of  a  Supreme  Be- 
ing, involves  a  very  clear  and  definite  con- 
ception concerning  the  origin  of  the  universe 
and  its  continuance.  What  is  thus  implied 
will  be  best  indicated  by  negative  as  well  as 
positive  statements,  in  some  such  form  as  the 
following.  First,  negatively,  the  world  we  in- 
habit does  not  carry  within  it  any  explanation 
of  the  origin  of  its  own  existence;  that  is  to 
say,  neither  the  materials  existing,  nor  the 
forces  operating,  are  sufficient  to  account  for 
its  origin;  neither  can  it  have  had  existence 
without  beginning.  In  positive  form,  the  uni- 
verse can  be  accounted  for  only  by  that  which 

*  Recent  Advances  of  Physical  Science,  p.  17. 


104  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

transcends  itself;  the  supernatural  is  the  key 
to  the  natural;  Nature  is  a  creation  to  be  at- 
tributed to  an  Intelligent  First  Cause. 

Are  science  and  religion  here  in  harmony 
in  the  form  and  measure  compatible  in  the 
circumstances?  This  qualified  and  guarded 
form  of  the  question  is  obviously  required, 
for  religious  thought  does  not  profess  to  be 
scientific,  or  in  any  sense  authoritative  as  to 
the  phenomena  of  nature,  that  is,  as  to  the 
facts  which  observation  alone  can  ascertain, 
or  as  to  the  immediate  causes  by  which  these 
facts  are  to  be  explained.  On  the  other  hand, 
science  is  exclusively  a  knowledge  of  nature, 
consisting  of  methodized  observations  con- 
cerning distinct  orders  of  facts,  and  rational 
inferences  founded  upon  these.  It  can  not 
in  true  sense  be  concerned  with  the  super- 
natural, but  can  only  present  conclusions  as 
to  the  order  and  processes  of  nature,  which 
by  subsequent  and  independent  exercise  of 
our  intelligence  may  be  contemplated  in  their 
relation  to  the  conception  of  the  supernat- 
ural, as  Intelligent  First  Cause.  This  subse- 
quent exercise  of  thought,  whether  critical 
or  constructive,  is  more  properly  the  task 
of  philosophy,  in  prosecution  of  those  re- 


INORGANIC  ELEMENTS.  105 

flective  and  speculative  exercises,  which,  pro- 
ceeding from  scientific  conclusions  as  ac- 
cepted data,  consider  their  intellectual  value 
as  contributing  towards  a  theory  of  the  uni- 
verse. Scientific  men  will,  of  course,  more 
or  less  readily  pass  over  to  take  some  share 
in  such  philosophic  speculation;  just  as  re- 
ligious men,  purely  under  the  impulse  of 
religious  interests,  will  be  more  or  less  dis- 
posed to  do,  in  proportion  to  the  range  of 
their  intellectual  life.  What  is  here  said  is 
not  intended  as  an  argument  for  any  re- 
striction upon  such  speculation  on  the  part 
either  of  scientific  or  of  religious  men,  for 
such  questions  are  common  property,  and 
the  arguments  bearing  upon  them  are  to  be 
tested  by  all.  But  it  is  of  some  consequence, 
specially  in  the  present  unsettled  and  sen- 
sitive state  of  the  public  mind,  that  it  be 
clearly  recognized  that  science  is  not  itself 
responsible  for  the  thoughts  of  scientific  men 
on  these  questions;  and  that  religion  is  not 
responsible  for  the  thoughts  of  religious  men 
upon  them.  Science  can  not  determine  any 
thing  as  to  a  philosophy  of  the  supernatural, 
any  more  than  religion  can  determine  any 
thing  as  to  a  science  of  nature.  Whether 


106  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

we  take  the  violent  and  even  passionate  an- 
tipathy to  any  acknowledgment  of  the  su- 
pernatural which  is  found  in  the  Essays  of 
Clifford,  or  the  profoundly  reverential  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  Deity  in  the  writings 
and  life  of  Faraday,  science  is  to  be  credited 
with  neither.  And  so  in  like  manner,  when 
we  have  violent  denunciations  of  science  pro- 
fessedly in  the  name  of  religion,  or  intelligent 
appreciation  of  its  high  value  from  accredited 
upholders  of  religious  truth,  religion  itself  is 
to  be  credited  with  neither  the  one  nor  the 
other.  This  is  a  matter  which  comes  within 
the  range  of  ordinary  intelligence.  It  may 
indeed  belong  to  philosophy  to  formulate  and 
develop  the  arguments  in  strict  harmony  with 
the  recognized  laws  of  mind;  but  it  belongs 
equally  to  all  men  tc  estimate  the  general 
sweep  and  range  of  acquired  knowledge  as 
to  the  structure  and  order  of  the  universe,  as 
bearing  upon  the  more  general  conceptions 
to  be  rationally  entertained  regarding  its  gov- 
ernment. "With  this  branch  of  the  subject, 
ordinary  thought  may  readily  deal  without 
entanglement  in  technicalities. 

There  is  as  we  have  seen  a  duality  of  exist- 
ence in  the  inorganic  structure  of  the  world, 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  107 

and  a  continual  succession  of  changes,  on  ac- 
count of  the  interaction  of  these  two.  Differ- 
ent forms  of  matter  stand  in  different  rela- 
tions; and  these  relations  are  being  constantly 
interchanged  by  the  transmutation  of  energy. 
Thus  taking  the  world  as  presented  to  us,  it 
has  a  constitution  which  requires  for  its  ex- 
planation that  we  go  beyond  every  thing  to 
be  found  within  itself.  The  matter  in  the  uni- 
verse can  not  account  for  the  energy;  nor  can 
the  energy  account  for  the  matter;  and  the 
relations  between  the  two  must  find  explana- 
tion in  something  higher  than  both.  What 
their  source  may  be,  science  is  incapable  of 
telling;  it  can  not  contribute  towards  satisfy- 
ing the  requirements  of  the  law  of  causality 
in  view  of  the  mutual  relations  of  matter  and 
energy  which  it  has  itself  revealed.  But 
equally  by  what  it  has  revealed,  and  by  ac- 
knowledgment of  its  inability  to  transcend  the 
limits  of  its  own  discoveries,  does  it  present 
harmony  with  religious  thought  in  the  form 
and  measure  in  which  it  is  possible  that  such 
harmony  could  be  manifested.  Discovering 
the  objective  existence  of  matter  and  energy, 
and  the  laws  in  accordance  with  which  the  lat- 
ter acts  upon  the  former,  it  presents  an  un- 


108  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

solved  problem  affording  the  most  direct  and 
positive  testimony  possible  to  science  in  sup- 
port of  the  existence  of  a  First  Cause,  tran- 
scending the  universe  itself.  How  matter  and 
energy  came  into  being,  it  can  not  tell;  but  it 
most  explicitly  declares  that  by  no  power  ex- 
isting and  operating  within  range  of  observa- 
tion is  it  possible  either  to  add  to  the  sum  of 
existence,  or  in  the  least  degree  to  diminish 
it.  Religious  thought  could  expect  nothing 
more  direct  and  explicit  in  the  form  of  scien- 
tific testimony  as  confirmation  of  its  funda- 
mental position.  Scientific  thought  while  deal- 
ing with  inorganic  existence  could  not,  even 
by  a  single  line  of  approach,  be  brought  near- 
er to  the  actual  support  of  religious  belief. 

Here  the  question  may  be  raised, — May 
not  the  world  have  existed  from  eternity? 
In  the  answer  to  this  question  there  are 
several  considerations  requiring  to  be  dis- 
tinguished. First,  science  has  no  testimony 
to  offer,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not  get  beyond 
the  area  of  laws  now  operating.  Second,  the 
testimony  of  science  concerning  the  world  as 
now  existing  is  inconsistent  with  the  suppo- 
sition of  its  eternal  existence.  The  matter 
which  is  constantly  operated  upon  by  en- 


INORGANIC  ELEMENTS.  109 

ergy  distinct  from  itself,  does  not  possess  the 
property  of  self-subsistence;  neither  does  the 
energy  which  is  constantly  undergoing  change. 
Continual  transition  or  change  from  one  phase 
of  existence,  or  set  of  relations,  to  another,  is 
a  mark  of  the  not-abiding,  an  evidence  of 
subjection  to,  and  dependence  on,  what  is 
beyond  and  above  itself.  The  non-enduring, 
or  ever-changing,  is  constantly  pointing  to  the 
ever-enduring. 

Full  understanding  of  the  situation  of 
things  as  discovered  by  science  will  produce 
a  much  deeper  impression  on  the  public  mind 
than  has  yet  been  effected.  The  reasonable- 
ness of  this  expectation  will  readily  appear, 
if  only  some  few  of  the  positions  be  placed 
conspicuously  in  view. 

It  is  of  special  consequence  to  note  that 
science  has  in  this  direction  finished  its  work, 
and  reached  its  ultimatum,  in  demonstrating 
the  physical  impossibility  of  either  increasing 
or  diminishing  the  existing  sum  total  of  mat- 
ter, or  of  energy.  The  conclusions  are  not 
such  as  can  be  regarded  as  provisional,  lia- 
ble to  be  overreached,  modified,  or  enlarged, 
by  what  may  afterwards  be  discovered.  We 
are  so  much  influenced  at  present, — and  sci- 


110  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

entific  men  share  in  the  experience,  as  well  as 
others, — by  the  general  and  well-grounded 
expectation  of  the  unceasing  advance  of  sci- 
ence, that  it  is  peculiarly  easy  in  sight  of  a 
great  general  problem  such  as  the  origin  and 
government  of  the  world,  to  overlook  the  sig- 
nificance of  ultimate  conclusions  in  given  di- 
rections. In  this  way,  we  too  readily  fall 
into  the  delusive  tendency  of  regarding  ac- 
credited conclusions  as  still  hanging  in  a 
measure  of  uncertainty,  or  at  least  as  having 
a  dubious  future  before  them,  because  they 
border  upon  the  region  of  the  unknown  so  far 
as  science  is  concerned,  or  upon  a  realm  of 
mystery,  which  science  regards  either  with 
aversion,  or  with  cherished  determination  of 
attack.  In  the  present  singularly  favorable 
position  of  science,  it  is  impossible  for  the 
public  mind  to  escape  this  tendency;  but  it 
becomes  only  the  more  imperative  to  dis- 
tinguish as  occasion  offers,  those  conclusions 
which  are  to  be  taken  as  final.  This  is  of 
immense  consequence  as  bearing  upon  gen- 
eral conceptions  concerning  the  universe. 

That  matter  can  not  be  originated,  and  can 
not  by  even  a  single  atom  be  destroyed,  is 
one  of  those  ultimate  statements,  upon  which 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  Ill 

physical  science  itself  relies  as  on  a  founda- 
tion. This  is  a  universally  accredited  truth, 
that  "  no  portion  of  matter,  however  small, 
goes  out  of  existence  or  comes  into  existence 
in  any  operation  whatever."  *  The  wonder- 
ful chemical  laboratory  of  living  organism 
may  change  many  forms  of  matter  into  liv- 
ing tissue,  but  all  returns  again  to  its  place  in 
the  inorganic  mass.  Material  may  pass  from 
one  phase  into  another,  but  there  is  nothing 
more  than  change.  The  sum  total  of  mate- 
rial existence  is  unaltered.  To  suggest  the 
contrary,— and  specially  to  do  so  in  the  name 
of  science, — were  to  bring  science  face  to  face 
with  the  conceptions  rejected  as  alien  to  its 
very  nature;  for  to  say  that  matter  may  be 
originated,  is  to  affirm  creation]  to  say  that  it 
may  be  destroyed,  is  to  affirm  the  possibility 
of  annihilation^  and  these  two  are  beyond  the 
range  of  science,  and  if  once  admitted  with- 
in its  boundaries,  they  would  destroy  science 
itself. 

So  it  is  when  we  pass  over  to  the  doctrine 
of  energy.  The  same  clear  and  ultimate  con- 
clusion is  proclaimed.  The  doctrine  of  the 
conservation  of  energy  is  the  ultimatum  on 

*  Tait's  Recent  Advances,  p.  15. 


112  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

which  physical  science  finds  sure  and  firm 
foothold.  In  those  two  ultimate  positions  of 
scientific  research  concerning  inorganic  exist- 
ence, religion  finds  support,  and  that  of  a 
kind  so  powerful,  that  science  itself  depends 
upon  its  immovability. 

There  is,  however,  a  further  point  con- 
nected with  the  doctrine  of  energy,  which 
deserves  consideration  as  bearing  on  the  ten- 
dency to  anticipate  an  indefinite  line  of  pro- 
gression in  the  history  of  this  world,  that  is, 
deterioration  or  degradation  in  the  form  of 
energy,  while  it  continues  of  equal  amount. 
The  efficient  value  of  energy  is  according  to 
the  possibilities  of  transformation  or  transmu- 
tation. But  its  use  implies  limitation  of  the 
available  forms,  or  steady  deterioration  of 
value.  "  Thus  the  energy  of  the  universe 
is,  on  the  whole,  constantly  passing  from 
higher  to  lower  forms,  and  therefore  the  pos- 
sibility of  transformation  is  becoming  smaller 
and  smaller,  so  that  after  the  lapse  of  suffi- 
cient time*  all  higher  forms  of  energy  must 
have  passed  from  the  physical  universe,  and 
we  can  imagine  nothing  as  remaining,  except 
those  lower  forms  which  are  incapable,  so  far 
as  we  yet  know,  of  any  further  transforma- 


INORGANIC    ELEMENTS.  113 

tion."  *  Such  a  statement  of  the  position, 
though  it  can  not  be  regarded  as  an  ultimate 
one  in  scientific  research,  is  so  obviously  a 
deduction  from  present  knowledge  that  it 
must  to  some  extent  modify  prevailing  con- 
ceptions. It  may,  indeed  be  suggested  that 
some  catastrophe  may  terminate  the  present 
order  of  things,  and  that  some  action  of  the 
law  of  gravitation  may  combine  the  fragments 
of  worlds,  and  give  a  fresh  start  with  new 
combinations  of  energy ;  but  the  bare  sug- 
gestion of  this  implies  a  much  wider  range 
for  scientific  research  than  any  thing  yet 
known  to  us,  and  at  the  same  time  a  larger 
demand  upon  intelligence  in  the  control  and 
regulation  of  what  must  nevertheless  seem  to 
us  violent  catastrophes.  Such  speculation, 
if  it  may  warrantably  find  encouragement 
under  purely  scientific  conditions,  religious 
thought  will  neither  gainsay  nor  resist;  but 
will  find  itself  in  no  perplexity  to  accept. 

Waiving,  however,  all  speculation  as  to  the 
possible  future  of  the  physical  universe,  we 
here  concentrate  attention  on  the  past;  we 
take  the  most  recent  scientific  testimony  as 
to  the  structure  of  the  physical  universe,  as 

*  Recent  Advances,  p.  20. 


114  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

it  bears  on  the  problem  concerning  the  ori- 
gin of  our  world.  Sere  the  testimony  of  sci- 
ence is  clearly  and  unmistakably  in  favor  of 
the  creation  or  absolute  origin  of  matter  and 
energy,  in  the  only  form  in  which  science 
can  bear  any  testimony  on  the  subject.  It  is, 
of  course,  impossible  that  science  should  pre- 
sent direct  testimony  to  the  fact  of  creation,  as 
it  is  impossible  that  history  should;  for  such  a 
fact  as  creation  must  be  entirely  beyond  the 
range  of  science.  But  in  testifying  to  the 
indestructibility  and  uncreatability  of  matter 
under  the  conditions  capable  of  being  investi- 
gated by  observational  science;  and  in  bearing 
the  same  testimony  as  to  the  energy  in  the 
world,  it  offers  all  the  support  it  is  capable  of 
offering  to  the  reality  of  the  supernatural, — 
testifying  to  the  dependence  of  nature  on  some 
power  altogether  transcending  itself.  But 
here  I  prefer  rather  to  use  the  words  of  a 
purely  scientific  observer.  When  dealing  with 
the  doctrine  of  energy,  and  specially  with  the 
consequences  of  dissipation  of  energy,  Profes- 
sor Tait  uses  these  words, — "As  it  alone  is 
able  to  lead  us,  by  sure  steps  of  deductive  rea- 
soning, to  the  necessary  future  of  the  universe 
— necessary,  that  is,  if  physical  laws  remain 


INORGANIC  ELEMENTS.  115 

forever  unchanged — so  itenables  us  distinctly 
to  say  that  the  present  order  of  things  has  not 
been  evolved  through  infinite  past  time  by 
the  agency  of  laws  now  at  work;  but  must 
have  had  a  distinctive  beginning,  a  state  be- 
yond which  we  are  totally  unable  to  pene- 
trate; a  state,  in  fact,  which  must  have  been 
produced  by  other  than  the  now  visibly  act- 
ing causes."  *  This  is  the  utmost  that  science 
can  say,  bearing  on  the  great  problem  of  the 
origin  of  the  universe;  and  nothing  more  pow- 
erful could  be  said  in  direct  testimony  to  the 
reality  of  the  supernatural,  and  the  reason- 
ableness of  Christian  faith,  thus  shown  to  be 
in  complete  harmony  with  science. 

It  is  not  here  suggested  that  all  scientific 
men  would  employ  such  language  as  that  now 
quoted,  or  even  readily  acquiesce  in  its  use. 
I  have  been  careful  to  indicate,  that  a  passion- 
ately excited  antagonism  to  any  recognition  of 
the  supernatural  is  avowed  by  some  scientific 
men.  Accordingly,  it  must  be  granted  that 
the  conclusion  here  stated  is  not  so  manifest  a 
deduction  as  to  preclude  denial.  The  testi- 
mony of  the  senses  commonly  terminates  dis- 
pute, .but  such  testimony  is  not  available  as 

*  Recent  Advances,  p.  22. 


116  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

to  the  reality  of  the  supernatural.  The  only 
testimony  that  can  be  given  here  must  be  of  a 
different  kind;  and  if  there  be  some  who  re- 
fuse to  credit  anything  save  what  comes  within 
range  of  the  senses,  or  is  deducible  directly 
and  simply  from  what  the  senses  make  known, 
there  is  no  help  for  them.  Neither  science, 
nor  philosophy,  nor  religion  can  deliver  them 
from  the  narrow  round  of  materialism.  But 
neither  science,  nor  philosophy,  nor  religion, 
can  restrict  itself  to  the  testimony  of  the 
senses.  A  deeper,  and  wider  range  of  in- 
quiry is  demanded  of  the  man  who  would 
walk  at  large  in  the  vast  field  spread  out  in 
nature.  All  human  life  is  subjected  to  the 
test  of  accepting  evidence  other  than  that 
the  senses  supply.  If  some  refuse  to  submit 
to  this  deeper  and  wider  test,  narrowing  their 
convictions  accordingly,  others  are  not  to  be 
restricted  in  this  way,  nor  are  they  to  be 
influenced  by  such  determination  even  on  the 
part  of  highly  distinguished  scientific  men. 
For,  it  can  not  be  overlooked  that  this  is  not 
a  question  of  science,  nor  does  it  imply  any 
thing  but  an  ordinary  exercise  of  intelligence. 
The  one  test  for  the  public  mind  is  this, — Is 
it  or  is  it  not  true  that  not  an  atom  of  matter 


INORGANIC   ELEMENTS.  117 

can  be  originated  or  destroyed  ?  Is  the  doc- 
trine of  the  conservation  of  energy  to  be 
taken  as  scientifically  demonstrated?  These 
things  science  must  decide,  and  beyond  these, 
all  is  clear  for  ordinary  intelligence.  Of  the 
testimony  of  science  on  these  two  questions 
there  is  no  doubt  whatever.  Religion,  there- 
fore, has  no  conflict  with  science  here;  it  sim- 
ply accepts  the  teaching  of  science,  finding 
in  it  ample  support  for  its  fundamental  posi- 
tion. What  creation  really  means,  or  how  we 
can  fittingly  represent  it  to  our  minds,  does 
riot  in  the  least  affect  the  question  here  under 
discussion,  for  these  are  not  points  on  which 
science  can  offer  any  testimony.  Nor  have 
the  defenders  of  religion  any  complaint  to 
urge  against  the  claims  which  science  makes 
to  explain  all  that  belongs  to  nature.  But 
when  those  who  make  the  largest  claims  for 
science,  acknowledge  that  science  is  baffled 
here,  their  testimony  gains  in  value  by  reason 
of  the  strength  of  their  antipathy  to  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  miraculous.  When  from 
an  accredited  scientific  witness  we  have  these 
words: —  "The  investigation  of  nature  does  not 
shrink  from  enrolling  life  and  the  processes 
of  life  in  the  world  of  the  comprehensible/7 


118  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

followed  up  by  this  explicit  statement,  "  We 
are  foiled  only  at  the  conception  of  matter 
and  force  "  ;*  the  claims  of  science  are  raised 
to  the  highest  pitch;  and  yet  its  insuperable 
limits  are  clearly  defined.  The  defender  of 
the  harmony  of  scientific  with  religious  thought 
has  nothing  more  to  desire.  The  very  place 
where  science  comes  to  a  halt,  acknowledging 
that  its  utmost  boundary  has  been  reached,  is 
the  place  where  it  is  demonstrated  that  scien- 
tific thought  and  religious  are  not  involved  in 
real  conflict. 

*  The  Doctrine  of  Descent,  by  Oscar  Schmidt,  p.  20. 


LECTURE    IY. 

ORGANIZED  EXISTENCE :  LIFE  AND  ITS  DEVEL- 
OPMENT.— (DARWIN'S   "THEORY  OF 
EVOLUTION.") 

TN  prosecuting  our  inquiry  as  to  the  most 
recent  advances  in  science,  we  pass  now 
from  inorganic  to  organic  existence;  from  the 
testimony  of  physicists,  to  that  of  zoologists. 
This  transition  in  itself  starts  a  scientific  prob- 
lem, beyond  which  we  are  carried  onward  to 
a  distinct  and  very  complicated  area  of  exist- 
ence, higher  uf  order,  and  pressing  upon  at- 
tention an  incalculable  variety  of  details,  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  harmonize.  In  the  earlier 
stage  of  physical  research,  all  observation  and 
experiment  lead  forward  to  general  results, 
which  gain  ready  acceptance  because  they 
may  be  said  to  be  involved  in  scientific  pro- 
cedure itself.  In  this  more  advanced  stage 
it  is  otherwise.  In  the  former,  unorganized 
matter  is  the  same  everywhere;  and  the  laws 
of  energy  can  be  studied  with  equal  facility 


120  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

in  Europe  or  in  America,  in  northern  latitudes 
or  in  southern.  But  when  we  begin  to  direct 
attention  upon  life  in  its  manifold  forms,  as 
these  are  scattered  all  over  the  world,  multi- 
tudes of  distinct  observations  have  to  be  pros- 
ecuted, and  their  results  slowly  accumulated, 
before  even  the  most  competent  workers  can 
occupy  a  position  from  which  it  is  possible  to 
make  a  beginning  with  our  forecast  of  general 
conclusions.  Even  in  the  most  favorable  cir- 
cumstances, a  great  deal  must  be  left  to  prob- 
lematic inference,  and  even  to  imagination. 
Gatherings  of  facts  may  be  recorded  in  a 
manner  which  places  them  beyond  reach  of 
doubt,  while  theories  founded  upon  them  hang 
long  in  suspense,  waiting  confirmation  on  con- 
dition of  being  able  to  endure  protracted  crit- 
icism, and  manifold  applications.  This  ac- 
counts for  the  difficulty  experienced  in  finding 
ready  to  hand  general  conclusions  which  have 
secured  universal  acceptance,  when  we  begin 
to  move  somewhat  freely  over  the  wide  re- 
gions presenting  the  manifold  problems  of 
organized  existence.  And  as  it  is  solely  with 
general  conclusions,  that  religious  thought  is 
concerned,  some  share  of  perplexity  must  at- 
tach to  the  attempt  to  discuss  the  question  of 


LIFE    AND   ITS  DEVELOPMENT.  121 

harmony.  We  must  here  therefore  be  consid- 
erably involved  in  questions  affecting  theories 
which  have  gained  wide  favor  in  scientific  cir- 
cles, as  well  as  with  clearly  recorded  and  cer- 
tain results.  Some  general  questions,  such  as 
that  affecting  the  classification  of  animals, 
must  be  regarded  as  peculiarly  scientific. 
Whether  the  classification  of  Linnaeus,  or  of 
Cuvier,  or  some  other  more  recently  suggested, 
is  to  be  preferred,  is  a  matter  which  does  not 
here  concern  us.  But  a  theory  of  the  origin 
of  species  must  be  considered,  because  it  is 
not  purely  scientific,  but  brings  science  into 
direct  relation  with  common  thought  as  to 
the  order  of  the  universe,  and  may  therefore 
stand  related  to  religious  thought. 

Immediately  on  directing  attention  to  or- 
ganized existence, — to  LIFE  in  any  form, — we 
encounter  a  new  problem,  namely  the  rela- 
tion of  the  organized  to  the  unorganized. 
How  is  the  appearance  of  this  higher  order 
of  existence  to  be  accounted  for?  Can  we 
find  in  the  nature  of  matter,  and  in  the  me- 
chanical and  chemical  laws  influencing  its  po- 
sition and  combination,  any  explanation  of 
the  appearance  of  life  in  the  world?  Or 
must  we  regard  life  as  a  new  and  higher  fact, 


122  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

unexplained  by  reference  to  the  lower  form 
of  existence,  and  incapable  of  explanation  in 
this  way?  Whether  there  is  a  clear  line  of 
demarcation  between  vegetable  and  animal 
life  is  a  comparatively  subordinate  question. 
It  is  the  wider  and  more  perplexing  question 
which  most  fundamentally  affects  our  general 
conceptions  as  to  the  history  and  government 
of  the  world  ?  And  when  this  question  is 
pressed  singly, — how  can  we  account  for  the 
appearance  of  life  in  the  world  ? — science  has 
no  answer  to  present.  Life  still  remains  a 
mystery  in  scientific  times,  as  it  had  been  in 
past  ages.  Much  has  been  written  as  to  the 
origin  of  species;  nothing  to  any  purpose  has 
yet  been  said  as  to  the  origin  of  life  itself. 
The  secrets  of  the  universe  in  this  respect 
have  eluded  discovery,  and  a  constrained  si- 
lence is  the  consequence. 

But  if  science  itself  has  nothing  to  say  as 
to  this  fundamental  problem,  scientific  men 
have  much  to  say  as  to  the  probability  of  a 
true  solution  of  the  mystery  being  forthcom- 
ing. There  is  in  many  quarters  an  expecta- 
tion that  we  may  yet  understand  the  physical 
principles,  that  is,  the  mechanical  and  chemi- 
cal combinations,  which  go  to  explain  life  as 


LIFE    AND   ITS  DEVELOPMENT.  123 

a  working  organism.*  The  suggestions  of 
Rumford  and  Joule  may  yet  bear  results  in 
this  direction,  for  it  is  matter  of  general  agree- 
ment that  living  organism  may  be  regarded  as  an 
engine  doing  a  given  amount  of  work,  on  con- 
dition of  being  supplied  with  a  given  amount 
of  fuel  in  the  form  of  nourishment.  When 
therefore  Rumford  suggests  that  the  animal 
is  a  more  economical  engine  than  any  of  the 
mechanical  contrivances  which  man  constructs, 
and  when  Joule  advances  considerably  beyond 
this  to  suggest  that  the  animal  more  resembles 
an  electro-magnetic  engine,  than  a  heat  engine, 
it  seems  quite  within  the  range  of  possibility 
that  in  some  such  direction  discovery  may  yet 
be  made  of  the  physical  principles  involved 
in  life. 

This,  however,  leaves  untouched  the  deeper 
question  as  to  the  origin  of  life.  We  are  en- 
tirely ignorant  of  any  beginning  of  life  which 
is  not  traced  directly  to  a  preceding  living 
organism.  Either,  as  in  the  case  of  plants, 
there  is  increase  of  life  by  fission,  or  separa- 
tion from  an  earlier  growth,  or  by  means  of 
seed  grown  upon  the  parent  plant;  or,  as  in 
the  case  of  animals,  by  germ  or  ovum.  But  the 

*  Tait's  Becent  Advances,  p.  23. 


124  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

question  of  the  origin  of  life  is  remote  from 
us  historically,  and  perplexing  to  us  experi- 
mentally. If  we  seek  guidance  historically, 
we  turn  to  geology,  and  learn  that  the  struct- 
ure of  the  earth  has  involved  successive  for- 
mations. The  materials  of  the  earth's  crust 
are  not  thrown  together  confusedly,  but  ' '  ex- 
hibit a  certain  order  of  arrangement";*  the 
mineral  masses  are  partly  aqueous,  partly  ig- 
neous, in  formation;  according  as  they  are  one 
or  other,  they  contain  organic  remains,  or  are 
marked  by  their  absence.  All  that  can  be 
inferred  from  the  data  thus  afforded  is  that 
at  a  certain  period  in  the  world's  history, 
when  temperature  and  other  conditions  af- 
fecting the  possibility  of  organic  existence 
were  favorable,  life  appeared.  As  to  the 
cause  of  its  appearance,  geology  can  give  no 
testimony.  If  next,  we  refer  to  palaeontol- 
ogy, we  learn  of  the  existence  of  colossal  ani- 
mals which  have  long  since  become  extinct; 
but  such  researches  only  widen  our  acquaint- 
ance with  different  orders  of  animals,  con- 
tributing nothing  towards  the  solution  of  the 
problem  concerning  the  origin  of  life.  The 
experimental  science  of  the  present  day,  with 

*  Lyell's  Elements  of  Geology,  p.  2. 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  125 

all  the  advantages  arising  from  microscopical 
observation,  is  altogether  unable  to  offer  any 
explanation.  Experiments  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  the  probability  of  "spontaneous 
generation"  have  been  already  described,  and 
their  failure  leaves  experimental  science  with- 
out any  direct  testimony;  while  their  history 
yields  powerful  indirect  evidence  in  support 
of  the  position  that  origin  of  life  apart  from 
germ  is  unknown. 

It  is,  however,  desirable  here,  in  order  to 
give  completeness  to  our  view  of  the  present 
situation,  to  remark  that  among  scientific  men 
there  are  some  who  have  no  expectation  of  a 
scientific  explanation  of  the  origin  of  life; 
while  others  are  exceedingly  hopeful  that 
such  explanation  may  be  reached,  in  the  lat- 
ter class  appearing  naturally  all  those  who 
openly  proclaim  against  what  they  name  an 
"incomprehensible  act  of  creation,"  and  vol- 
untarily place  themselves  in  antagonism  to 
religious  thought.  It  is,  therefore,  of  some 
consequence  to  indicate  the  grounds  on  which 
such  opposite  views  rest.  On  the  one  side, 
Professor  Tait,  while  suggesting  the  possibility 
of  yet  discovering  the  physical  principles  which 
determine  life,  nevertheless  adds,  "  Let  no  one 


126  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

imagine  that,  should  we  ever  penetrate  this 
mystery,  we  shall  thereby  be  enabled  to  pro- 
duce, except  from  life,  even  the  lowest  form  of 
life."  *  On  the  other  hand  Professor  Schmidt 
of  Strasburg  maintains  the  opposite  view,  af- 
firming that  "the  investigation  of  nature  does 
not  shrink  from  enrolling  life,  and  the  pro- 
cesses of  life  in  the  world  of  the  comprehen- 
sible.'^ This  latter  assertion  is  not  to  be 
accounted  for  on  the  ground  that  Schmidt  is 
the  ardent  admirer  and  defender  of  the  theory 
of  origin  of  species  by  natural  selection,  for  it 
is  clear,  as  he  maintains  in  replying  to  Max 
Miiller,  that  "the  origin  of  life  has  in  fact 
nothing  to  do  with  actual  Darwinism,  or  nat- 
ural selection,  unless  the  principle  of  selection 
be  extended  to  the  inorganic  world  of  mat- 
ter." J  Mr.  Darwin  himself  does  not  suggest 
any  such  extension,  and  his  theory  of  species 
is  not  chargeable  with  it.  It  should,  indeed, 
be  clearly  recognized  on  all  hands  that  the 
naturalist  confines  himself  to  a  narrower  range 
of  inquiry,  taking  existing  phases  of  life  as 
the  subject  of  his  study.  Accordingly,  who- 
ever claims  that  the  origin  of  life  comes  within 

*  Recent  Advances,  p.  24.  f  Doctrine  of  Descent,  p.  20. 

J  Ib.  p.  161. 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  127 

the  compass  of  science,  does  so  on  the  ground 
that  there  is  no  demarcation  between  the  or- 
ganic and  the  inorganic, — that  the  former  may 
arise  directly  from  the  latter, — and  so  he  com- 
mits himself  to  a  doctrine  of  descent  world- 
wide in  its  application,  involving  development 
in  the  world  of  all  its  varied  phases  of  ex- 
istence from  a  mass  of  unorganized  matter. 
This  explains  the  difference  of  opinion 
among  scientific  men  as  to  the  possibility  of 
accounting  for  the  origin  of  life.  A  certain 
number  deny  the  possibility,  as  they  do  the 
possibility  of  explaining  scientifically  the  ori- 
gin of  matter  on  the  explicit  ground  indi- 
cated by  Laplace, — ll  Present  events  are  con- 
nected with  the  events  of  the  past  by  a  link 
resting  on  the  obvious  principle,  that  a  thing 
can  not  begin  to  exist  without  a  cause  which 
produces  it."  *  They  do  not  find  in  inorganic 
matter  sufficient  cause  to  account  for  life,  and 
their  expectations  are  restricted  accordingly. 
Those  who  cherish  a  contrary  expectation,  do 
not  vindicate  it  by  contradiction  of  the  obvi- 
ous principle  enunciated  by  Laplace,  or  even 
by  maintaining  that  inorganic  matter  is  ade- 
quate to  produce  living  organism.  They  cling 

*  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Scknce. 


128  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

to  the  more  general  and  doubtful  position  that 
no  limits  are  to  be  assigned  to  science,  or  as 
it  is  often  stated,  all  nature  belongs  to  the 
comprehensible.  The  failure  of  past  experi- 
ments is  no  proof  that  inevitable  failure  awaits 
other  experiments  which  may  yet  be  made.  To 
abandon  expectation  seems  to  them  to  be  un- 
faithful to  science.  In  this  fashion,  Professor 
Schmidt  declares  that  "to  any  one  who  holds 
open  the  possibility  that,  even  now,  animate 
may  be  evolved  from  inanimate,  without  the 
mediation  of  progenitors,  the  first  origin  of  life 
in  this  natural  method  is  at  once  self-evident"  * 
To  this  view  the  other  side  may  legitimately 
reply,  that  if  the  origin  of  life  be  as  easily  ac- 
counted for,  as  provision  is  here  made  for  the 
"  self-evident,"  science  will  soon  be  at  a  dis- 
count. To  those  regarding  the  matter  from 
without,  and  waiting  for  testimony  as  to  what 
is  scientifically  established,  it  is  clear  that 
there  is  no  explanation  of  the  origin  of  life; 
and  I  think  it  will  be  most  commonly  held 
that  the  weight  of  reason  as  to  expectations 
for  the  future  lies  with  those  who  abandon 
the  anticipation  of  any  scientific  explanation. 
There  is,  however,  in  actual  conclusions  on 

*  Doctrine  of  Descent,  p.  163. 


LIFE   AND   ITS   DEVELOPMENT. 

scientific  evidence  nothing  involving  conflict 
with  religious  conviction;  and  allowance  will 
be  made  for  continued  and  extended  experi- 
ments, provided  only  that  the  "  holding  open 
the  possibility,"  does  not  make  the  probability 
11  self-evident.77 

Passing  thus  from  the  unsolved  problem  of 
the  origin  of  life, — with  the  attendant  acknow- 
ledgment that  there  is  no  scientific  theory  of 
the  world's  descent  from  primordial  atoms, 
we  advance  to  the  testimony  of  science  con- 
cerning different  orders  of  life,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  each  other.  Here  there  is  no  re- 
striction as  to  the  use  of  scientific  methods; 
there  is  wide  range  for  free  action  by  the 
hosts  of  observers  required  for  the  work.  A 
sense  of  the  relief  which  this  implies,  in  con- 
trast with  the  hampering  restraints  surround- 
ing the  earlier  question,  imparts  to  the  words 
of  Schmidt  a  more  jubilant  tone,  as  he  says, 
"Between  beginning  and  end,  we  naturalists 
may  do  as  we  please.77 

In  this  region  it  will  be  universally  ad- 
mitted that  the  development  of  species  by 
selection  is  the  conception  which  has  gained 
greatest  hold  upon  the  scientific  mind  within 

*  Doctrine  cf  Descent,  p.  162. 


130  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

recent  times.  Accordingly  it  seems  better  to 
begin  with  an  outline  of  this  theory,  and  of  its 
history  as  developed  by  Mr.  Darwin,  keeping, 
however,  steadily  in  view  the  range  of  problem 
with  which  the  theory  has  to  deal. 

As  already  remarked  the  origin  of  life  is  a 
problem  quite  distinct,  and  the  theory  of  se- 
lection does  not  entangle  itself  by  maintaining 
origin  of  life  by  development  from  unorgan- 
ized matter.  Mr.  Darwin  clearly  guarded 
himself  against  responsibility  for  such  a  con- 
ception of  its  origin.*  Restricting  thus  far, 
we  have  to  keep  in  view  the  vast  range  of  the 
problem  demanding  scientific  explanation. 

Animal  life  manifests  itself  by  spontaneous 
movement, — movement  from  within  the  liv- 
ing organism,  in  contrast  with  movement 
caused  by  energy  applied  from  without.  This 
holds  true  of  every  living  germ,  from  which  a 
mature  animal  form  may  be  developed.  This 
is  the  test  of  the  presence  of  life  under  the  mi- 
croscope in  minute  germinal  structures  other- 
wise incapable  of  observation.  In  its  lowest 
known  form  life  appears  in  a  minute  vessel 
containing  so  much  nourishment,  which  is  with- 
in a  nucleus  or  vital  centre  from  which  move- 

*  Origin  of  Species,  p.  577. 


LIFE   AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  131 

ment  originates.*  This  depends  for  its  develop- 
ment on  external  conditions  such  as  heat  and 
moisture. f  Advance  in  the  scale  is  connected 
with  greater  complexity  in  the  organism.  As 
we  ascend,  separate  organs  appear,  fulfilling 
distinct  functions,  and  controlled  by  means  of 
a  nerve  system  whose  ramifications  are  accord- 
ing to  the  intricacy  of  the  organism.  The 
appearance  of  such  a  nerve  system  implies 
sensibility  and  motor  activity,  provision  for 
an  experience,  more  or  less  varied,  and  move- 
ment in  some  measure  according  with  it,  or 
adapted  to  it.  From  a  nerve  system  consist- 
ing of  a  centre  and  a  few  fibres,  we  gradually 
ascend,  until  in  the  higher  vertebrate  orders, 
we  find  a  vast  system  of  nerves  harmonized 
and  governed  from  a  grand  centre  or  termi- 
nus constituting  the  brain.  J  With  the  steadily 
advancing  complexity  of  nerve  system,  there 
is  great  diversity  in  the  orders  of  animals,  in 
the  variety  of  actions  of  which  they  are  capa- 
ble, in  adaptation  to  different  conditions  of 
life,  and  in  the  modes  in  which  they  obtain 
subsistence.  The  scientific  problem  is — How 
far  can  we  account  for  all  this  complex  sys- 
tem of  things  by  the  action  of  natural  causes  ? 
As  we  are  here  specially  concerned  with 

*  See  Appendix  VII     f  See  Appendix  V.     \  See  Appendix  IV. 


132  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

ruling  conceptions,  and  only  indirectly  with 
details,  the  relations  of  the  animal  and  vege- 
table kingdoms  may  be  passed,  with  the  ac- 
knowledgment that  the  two  are  obviously 
distinct,  and  yet  that  the  vegetable  very 
nearly  merges  into  the  animal  at  certain 
points,  as  illustrated  by  sensibility,  if  not 
by  locomotion.  So  may  we  waive  discus- 
sion of  the  classification  of  animals,  which 
involves  important  points  closely  connected 
with  the  main  question.  Allowing  that  the 
wonderful  diversity  in  animal  organization, 
may  admit  of  different  modes  of  classifica- 
tion; and  yet  granting  that  the  structure  of 
the  animal  economy  in  all  its  forms  proceeds 
on  common  principles,  which  must  lead  to 
practical  agreement  as  to  modes  of  classifi- 
cation; we  deal  with  the  single  question  as 
to  the  natural  causes  serving  to  explain  dif- 
ferent orders. 

Mr.  Darwin's  suggestion,  largely  supported 
by  evidence  from  many  quarters,  and  now 
commanding  a  very  general  support  is,  that 
all  this  diversity  may  be  regarded  as  the 
product  of  a  long  process  of  development. 
This  theory  takes  the  whole  orders  of  exist- 
ence into  one  sweep.  The  lowest  type  of 


LIFE   AND   ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  133 

animal  life  presents  to  view  the  beginning 
of  a  protracted  history;  the  highest  order  of 
animate  existence  indicates  the  stage  of  ad- 
vance at  which  we  observe  things  at  the 
present  period.  For  such  a  theory  the  his- 
tory of  individual  development  belonging  to 
whatever  order,  and  the  history  of  distinct 
orders  as  indicating  improvement  and  de- 
viation of  whatever  aspect,  present  evidence 
of  special  value.  The  most  important  causes 
relied  upon  as  contributing  to  the  formation 
of  a  scientific  theory  may  be  presented  under 
these  four  heads — (1)  The  action  of  external 
causes  as  provided  for  by  environment;  (2) 
power  of  adaptability  within  each  organism, 
providing  for  changes  according  to  require- 
ment from  without,  which  may  be  described 
as  "  adaptive  changes  of  structure;77  (3)  "  the 
struggle  for  existence,"  in  accordance  with 
which  the  strongest  gain  the  mastery  and 
consequent  advantage  in  obtaining  the  means 
of  subsistence;  and  (4)  "natural  selection" 
among  the  sexes,  giving  to  the  offspring  all 
advantages  according  to  the  laws  of  heredi- 
tary descent. 

The  essential  feature  in  this  theory  is  the 
jiower  of  adaptability  inherent  in  the  organism. 


134  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

This  is  postulated  as  characteristic  of  all  or- 
ganized existence;  and  it  is  implied,  that  this 
power  of  adaptability  multiplies  in  a  degree 
approximating  to  the  measure  of  complex- 
ity belonging  to  the  organism.  The  inhe- 
rent capacity  for  deviation  is  thus  much  less 
in  the  mollusk  than  in  the  bird;  and  in  the 
bird  much  less  than  in  the  quadruped. 
Thus  the  development  process  which  must, 
according  to  this  view,  have  been  exceed- 
ingly slow  in  the  earlier  stages,  must  have 
been  greatly  accelerated  when  more  complex 
organisms  had  come  into  existence,  and  all 
the  advantages  accrued  from  greater  diver 
sity  of  materials.  Such  is  a  brief  outline  of 
the  theory;  and  looked  at  simply  as  a  theory, 
there  is  a  manifest  attraction  in  the  boldness 
of  the  conception,  and  the  wide  sweep  of 
the  generalization  which  it  includes.  Taken 
merely  as  an  intellectual  representation  set- 
ting forth  a  conceivable  order  of  things  in 
the  universe,  it  has  a  great  deal  to  command 
attention  and  awaken  interest.  It  is,  indeed, 
a  novelty  in  the  history  of  scientific  thought, 
and  as  such  at  variance  with  previous  con- 
ceptions, both  scientific  and  non- scientific. 
But  it  is  no  more  at  variance  with  religious 


LIFE    AND   ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  135 

thought,  than  with  ordinary  notions  of  pre- 
ceding times;  while  to  the  author  whose 
name  is  now  associated  with  it  all  over  the 
scientific  world,  it  is  a  more  striking  testi- 
mony of  the  marvels  of  creative  power,*  than 
notions  previously  current,  which  regarded  it 
as  historically  true  that  every  existing  variety 
of  animal  was  launched  into  being  by  a  dis- 
tinct creative  act.  Whatever  may  be  the  ul- 
timate view  of  the  history  of  life  on  the  earth, 
based  on  purely  scientific  data, — and  we  are 
still  a  far  way  removed  from  what  may  be 
regarded  as  scientific  evidence  for  such  a 
view, — the  fewer  the  primordial  forms  to 
which  the  multiplicity  of  existing  species 
can  be  traced,  the  greater  is  the  marvel 
which  science  presents,  and  the  more  con- 
vincing becomes  the  intellectual  necessity  by 
which  we  travel  back  to  a  Supernatural  Intel- 
ligence as  the  source  of  all.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  slow  process  by  which  scientific 
research  tends  to  make  out  the  natural  his- 
tory of  living  organisms  far  removed  from 
each  other  in  the  scale  of  being,  tracing 
many  groups  to  a  common  parentage,  and 
assigning  their  appearance  in  the  world  to 

*  Origin  of  Species,  p.  577. 


136  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

distinct  periods  in  its  history,  will  be  seen 
to  be  so  far  anticipated  and  favored  by  the 
graphic  description  of  the  introduction  of  an- 
imal life  given  in  the  opening  page  of  revela- 
tion, where  different  orders  are  assigned  to 
successive  epochs. 

While,  however,  these  things  are  said  at 
the  outset,  as  affording  commencement  for 
the  study  of  an  evolution  theory,  and  de- 
livering us  from  the  supposition  that  there  is 
an  inevitable  antagonism  between  science  and 
recognition  of  the  supernatural,  we  revert  to 
the  ruling  principle  for  this  whole  inquiry, 
that  science  must  prosecute  its  own  researches, 
unfettered  by  forecast  of  consequences;  and 
that  the  Bible  is  not  to  be  handled  as  if  it 
were  a  book  of  science,  for  it  neither  lays  re- 
straints upon  human  inquiry,  nor  delivers  us 
from  the  need  for  it. 

The  best  method  for  entering  upon  a  study 
of  the  theory  of  evolution  by  natural  se- 
lection is  to  take  Mr.  Darwin's  own  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  it  began  to  take  shape 
before  his  mind.  In  his  "  historical  sketch  of 
the  recent  progress  of  opinion  on  the  origin 
of  species,"  *  he  traces  to  Lamark  the  first  sug- 

*  The  Origin  of  Species,  riii.  4th  ed. 


LIFE   AND   ITS   DEVELOPMENT,  137 

gestions  on  the  subject,  directing  public  at- 
tention to  the  question  in  1801;  thereafter  a 
succession  of  naturalists  including  St.  Hilaire, 
Wells,  and  Patrick  Matthew,  from  separate 
and  incidental  observations,  dwelt  upon  the 
difficulty  of  distinguishing  species,  and  on  the 
evidence  of  an  archetypal  idea,  or  common 
•plan  of  structure,  being  applicable  in  the  his- 
tory of  whole  orders.  Mr.  Darwin  then  gives 
the  following  biographical  references  at  the 
outset, — "  When  on  board  H.  M.  S.  '  Beagle/ 
as  naturalist,  I  was  much  struck  with  certain 
facts  in  the  distribution  of  the  organic  beings 
inhabiting  South  America,  and  in  the  geolog- 
ical relations  of  the  present  to  the  past  inhab- 
itants of  that  continent.  These  facts  seemed 
to  throw  some  light  on  the  origin  of  species 
— that  mystery  of  mysteries,  as  it  has  been 
called  by  one  of  our  greatest  philosophers. 
On  my  return  home,  it  occurred  to  me  in 
1837,  that  something  might  perhaps  be  made 
out  on  this  question  by  patiently  accumulat- 
ing and  reflecting  on  all  sorts  of  facts  which 
could  possibly  have  any  bearing  on  it.  After 
five  years'  work  I  allowed  myself  to  speculate 
on  the  subject,  and  drew  up  some  short 
notes;  these  I  enlarged  in  1844  into  a  sketch 


138  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

of  the  conclusions  which  then  seemed  to  me 
probable:  from  that  period  to  the  present  day 
I  have  steadily  pursued  the  same  object.'7  * 
Such  is  Mr.  Darwin's  opening  paragraph  in 
the  now  celebrated  Origin  of  Species.  No 
one  interested  in  such  investigations  will  hes- 
itate to  approve  and  trust  the  "  patiently  ac- 
cumulating and  reflecting  on  all  sorts  of 
facts;"  nor  can  there  be  any  hesitation  in 
granting  the  warrantableness  of  his  beginning 
to  speculate  as  to  the  probable  results.  On 
the  other  hand,  even  the  most  ardent  admir- 
ers of  the  evolution  theory  can  not  refuse  to 
allow  that  only  its  principles  are  certain, 
while  its  ultimate  form  is  still  matter  of 
conjecture  and  speculation.  Quite  divergent 
lines  of  speculation  have  found  a  start  within 
the  compass  of  the  phenomena  brought  under 
review,  and  it  is  already  apparent  that  op- 
posite tendencies  of  thought  have  effected  a 
lodgment  under  the  common  name  of  evolu- 
tion. In  these  circumstances  there  is  no  di- 
rect call,  as  there  are  no  proper  materials,  for 
attempting  a  reconciliation  between  the  prin- 
ciples of  religion,  and  definite  scientific  con- 
clusions as  to  the  origin  of  species.  We  are 

*  The  Origin  of  Species,  p.  1. 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  139 

still  occupying  that  position  which  makes  his- 
torical treatment  of  the  subject  the  most  ap- 
propriate, leaving  to  speculation  the  probable 
lines  of  adjustment  which  may  render  possible 
a  wider  induction  bearing  on  a  general  theory 
of  the  universe. 

The  observations  of  Alfred  Russell  Wallace 
in  the  Malay  Archipelago  led  towards  the 
same  conclusions  as  those  indicated  by  Dar- 
win, to  whom  Mr.  Wallace  dedicated  his 
book,*  giving  the  results  of  research  extend- 
ing from  1854  to  1862,  and  in  confirmation 
of  Darwin's  theory,  though  differing  on  im- 
portant points,  Wallace  published  in  1870  his 
Contribution  to  the  Theory  of  Natural  Selec- 
tion. Mr.  Darwin's  views  when  first  pro- 
mulgated received  decided  though  somewhat 
guarded  support  from  Sir  Charles  Lyell, 
whose  geological  studies  marked  him  out  as 
a  highly  qualified  witness  on  the  subject,  and 
were  strongly  favored  by  Dr.  Hooker,  author 
of  Introduction  to  the  Australian  Flora,  while 
they  encountered  not  a  little  criticism,  and 
were  met  with  announcements  of  formal  res- 
ervations, on  the  part  of  distinguished  nat- 
uralists. 

•  Malay  Archipdago,  1869. 


140  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

A  fuller  statement  as  to  the  history  of  his 
own  thought  was  given  by  Mr.  Darwin  in  the 
fifth  edition  of  his  work,  and  also  in  a  letter 
to  Hseckel,  author  of  the  bolder  venture  as 
to  the  History  of  the.  Creation,  and  the  Solu- 
tion of  Man.  This  letter  to  Haeckel  may  be 
given  here  as  having  considerable  value  in  its 
bearing  on  the  formation  of  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution. After  referring  to  his  early  researches 
as  to  lower  forms  of  life,  Mr.  Darwin  proceeds 
thus — "  Having  reflected  much  on  the  forego- 
ing facts,  it  seemed  to  me  probable  that  allied 
species  were  descended  from  a  common  ances- 
tor. But  during  several  years  I  could  not  con- 
ceive how  each  form  could  have  been  modified 
so  as  to  become  admirably  adapted  to  its  place 
in  nature.  I  began  therefore  to  study  domes- 
ticated annuals  and  cultivated  plants,  and  after 
a  time  perceived  that  man's  power  of  selecting 
and  breeding  from  certain  individuals  was  the 
most  powerful  of  all  means  in  the  production 
of  new  races.  Having  attended  to  the  habits  of 
animals  and  their  relations  to  the  surrounding 
conditions,  I  was  able  to  realize  the  severe 
struggle,  for  existence  to  which  all  organisms 
are  subjected;  and  my  geological  observations 
had  allowed  me  to  appreciate  to  a  certain  ex- 


LIFE    AND   ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  141 

tent  the  duration  of  past  geological  periods. 
With  my  mind  thus  prepared,  I  fortunately 
happened  to  read  Malthus's  Essay  on  Popula- 
tion- and  the  idea  of  natural  selection  through 
the  struggle  for  existence  at  once  occurred  to 
me.  Of  all  the  subordinate  points  in  the 
theory,  the  last  which  I  understood  was  the 
cause  of  the  tendency  in  the  descendants  from 
a  common  progenitor  to  diverge  in  character."  * 
This  short  passage  in  personal  history  may 
considerably  aid  others  in  their  study  of  the 
theory. 

This  letter  may  with  advantage  be  supple- 
mented by  one  or  two  brief  extracts  from  The 
Origin  of  Species.  In  one  of  his  most  recent 
editions,  our  author  says, — "It  may  be  meta- 
phorically said,  that  natural  selection  is  daily 
and  hourly  scrutinizing  throughout  the  world 
the  slightest  variations,  rejecting  those  that 
are  bad,  preserving  and  adding  up  all  that 
are  good;  silently  and  insensibly  working, 
whenever  and  wherever  opportunity  offers, 
at  the  improvement  of  each  organic  being  in 
relation  to  its  organic  and  inorganic  condi- 

*  The  passage  is  quoted  as  given  by  Schmidt  in  his  Doctrine 
of  Descent,  p.  132.  Italics  are  inserted  to  guide  the  eye  of  the 
reader  to  the  successive  stages. 


142  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

tions  of  life."  Such  a  metaphorical  representa- 
tion attributing  to  nature  different  processes, 
such  as  scrutinizing,  rejecting,  preserving,  and 
working,  considerably  aids  us  by  pointing  to 
the  intellectual  conditions  involved  in  the  ac- 
ceptance of  the  theory  of  evolution.  To  this 
it  may  suffice  if  there  be  added  the  closing 
passage  in  our  author's  work  on  species,  indi- 
cating his  view  of  the  relation  of  all  to  the 
supernatural.  It  is  in  these  words — "Thus, 
from  the  war  of  nature,  from  famine  and  death, 
the  most  exalted  object  which  we  are  capable 
of  conceiving,*  namely,  the  production  of  the 
higher  animals,  directly  follows.  There  is 
grandeur  in  this  view  of  life,  with  its  several 
powers,  having  been  originally  breathed  by 
the  Creator  into  a  few  forms  or  into  one;  and 
that  whilst  this  planet  has  gone  cycling  on 
according  to  the  fixed  law  of  gravity,  from  so 
simple  a  beginning  endless  forms  most  beauti- 
ful and  most  wonderful  have  been,  and  are 
being  evolved."  f  On  this  passage,  Schmidt 
has  remarked — "In  this  concession,  Darwin 
has  certainly  been  untrue  to  himself;  and  it 
satisfies  neither  those  who  believe  in  the  con- 

*  Referring  to  organized  being, 
t  Origin  of  Species,  p.  577. 


LIFE    AND   ITS  DEVELOPMENT.  143 

tinuous  work  of  creation  by  a  personal  God, 
nor  the  partisans  of  natural  evolution."  In 
this  criticism  we  have  a  good  example  of  the 
manner  in  which  an  impression  of  conflict  is 
fostered.  The  rejoinder  to  Schmidt  is  obvious. 
Those  who  value  religion  seek  no  concessions, 
but  desire  to  banish  from  scientific  and  phi- 
losophic writing  all  thought  tending  in  this  di- 
rection. If,  however,  needless  complications 
are  to  be  avoided,  we  must  have  exact  state- 
ments of  the  relative  positions.  The  sen- 
tence just  quoted  involves  a  misrepresenta- 
tion equally  of  religion  and  science.  Belief 
in  the  supernatural  does  not  imply  belief  in 
a  continuous  work  of  creation,  and  therefore 
does  not  carry  any  thing  inherently  antag- 
onistic to  the  conception  of  evolution  under 
natural  law.  On  the  other  hand,  belief  in 
evolution  of  species  under  the  action  of  natural 
law  does  not  decide  the  question,  concerning 
the  origin  of  life,  just  as  a  science  of  nature 
can  decide  nothing  concerning  the  supernatural. 
Professor  Schmidt  is,  however,  so  far  from 
clearly  and  consistently  recognizing  the  exact 
limit  of  the  theory,  that  within  the  compass 
of  a  single  page  he  first  affirms  the  limitation, 
and  then  denies  it.  First  vindicating  Darwin 


144:  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

from  the  attack  of  Max  M tiller  as  to  begin- 
ning and  end  of  living  organism,  he  says, 
11  The  origin  of  life  has  in  fact  nothing  to  do 
with  actual  Darwinism,  or  natural  selection, 
unless  the  principle  of  selection  be  extended 
to  the  inorganic  world  of  matter/7*  an  entan- 
glement which  Schmidt  is  willing  to  avoid, 
and  which  Darwin  carefully  shuns,  distinctly 
stating  that  "  Science  in  her  present  state 
does  not  countenance  the  belief  that  living 
creatures  are  now  ever  produced  from  inor- 
ganic matter."  f  But  Schmidt  has  no  sooner 
placed  himself  behind  this  line  of  defence, 
than  he  attacks  Darwin  for  acknowledging 
origin  of  life  by  creation,  maintaining  that 
"it  is  directly  incompatible  with  the  doctrine 
of  descent."!  The  theorist  must  take  either 
one  side  or  the  other.  Either  he  must  main- 
tain that  the  theory  of  descent  has  "  nothing 
to  do  with  the  origin  of  life,"  and  in  that  case 
there  is  no  conflict  with  religious  thought;  or 
that  the  theory  of  descent  is  incompatible 
with  creation,  and  in  that  case  there  is  con- 
flict with  religious  thought,  and  at  the  same 

*  Doct.  of  Descent,  p.  161-2. 

t  Origin  of  Species,  4th  ed.  p.  143. 

i  Doct  of  Descent,  1G2. 


LIFE    AND    ITS  DEVELOPMENT.  145 

time  inconsistency  with  science,  in  respect  of 
its  own  definition  as  an  explanation  of  nature, 
and  in  respect  of  its  own  results  which  do  not 
involve  "spontaneous  generation,"  but  do  in- 
clude the  position  that  not  a  single  particle  of 
matter  can  be  originated  or  destroyed  by  any 
power  recognized  in  operation.  No  one  will 
"  dispute  the  claims  of  the  investigation  of 
nature  to  its  logical  inferences,"  but  "  where 
the  material  substratum  is  deficient,"  most 
reasonable  men  will  demand  that  distinct  ac- 
knowledgment be  made  of  the  fact,  and  that 
the  boundaries  of  science  be  defined  accord- 
ingly. If,  however,  any  one  be  inclined  to 
maintain  that  "where  the  material  substra- 
tum is  deficient,"  all  inquiry  must  terminate, 
and  human  thought  must  refuse  to  go  further, 
or  to  attempt  to  rise  higher,  this  certainly  is 
not  science,  but  an  illogical  attempt  to  make 
the  science  of  nature  commensurate  with  the 
boundaries  of  thought, — an  arbitary  declara- 
tion that  "the  causal  series"  within  the  ma- 
terial universe  is  the  sum  total  of  causality. 
Such  an  affirmation  can  not  warrantably  at- 
tach itself  to  a  theory  of  descent,  as  it  can 
not  be  tested  by  observational  methods,  but 
altogether  by  reference  to  the  laws  of  thought 


146  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

determining  the  value  of  rationalizing  pro- 
cesses. The  theory  of  "natural  evolution," 
implies  evolution  from  something ;  it  postu- 
lates a  beginning  from  which  it  takes  proced- 
ure, and  it  exhausts  itself  in  observations  con- 
cerning such  deviations  as  occur  in  the  annals 
of  natural  history.  If,  therefore,  any  of  "the 
partisans  of  natural  evolution,"  take  up  a  po- 
sition involving  denial  of  a  rational  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  supernatural,  they  isolate 
themselves  in  so  doing,  leaving  the  theory 
free  from  responsibility  as  to  their  attitude, 
and  taking  upon  themselves  the  logical  neces- 
sity for  vindicating  their  position  on  grounds 
with  which  the  theory  of  evolution  itself  has 
no  concern. 

Having  thus  vindicated  the  theory  of  nat- 
ural evolution  from  all  share  in  the  denial  of 
creation,  and  having  entered  a  protest  upon 
purely  scientific  grounds  against  the  attempt 
to  translate  a  scientific  theory  concerning  a 
limited  order  of  facts  within  the  universe  into 
a  metaphysical  theory  concerning  the  origin 
of  the  universe,  we  are  in  a  position  to  con- 
centrate upon  the  theory  itself  as  an  attempt 
to  provide  a  scientific  explanation  of  the  his- 
tory of  living  organism.  And  this  is  here 


LIFE   AND   ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  147 

done  with  the  view  of  ascertaining,  in  a  gen- 
eral and  necessarily  restricted  manner,  the 
value  of  the  evidence  presented  for  its  accept- 
ance, thereby  ascertaining  its  relations  to  the 
essential  characteristics  of  religious  thought. 

The"  first  and  simplest  part  of  the  task  is  to 
indicate  the  favorable  impression  it  has  made 
on  the  minds  of  men, — the  conquest  it  has 
already  won  for  itself, — as  a  theory  carrying' 
within  it  a  large  amount  of  truth,  whatever 
may  be  its  final  form,  after  the  very  intricate 
and  difficult  questions  involved  have  been 
carefully  examined.  The  theory  has  carried 
general  approval  for  the  position  that  "  allied 
species  are  descended  from  a  common  ances- 
tor," or,  stating  the  same  view  in  the  manner 
suggested  by  experiment,  that  it  is  possible 
to  obtain  in  the  history  of  a  single  race  of  an- 
imals, considerable  deviations  in  structure, 
and  to  give  these  deviations  fixedness  or  per- 
manence by  continuance  of  selected  features 
along  the  line  of  hereditary  descent.  This 
has  been  amply  illustrated  by  the  examples 
of  the  various  orders  of  pigeons,  and  of  dogs; 
both  classes  of  animals  having  been  largely 
experimented  upon,  and  the  distinct  varieties 
being  easily  recognized  and  popularly  known. 


148  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION.      '. 

Comparatively  little  hesitation  exists  as  to  ac- 
knowledging that  the  different  orders  of  pig- 
eons have  had  a  common  ancestry;  and  that 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  different  races 
of  dogs.  These  examples  afford  the  govern- 
ing conception  of  the  evolution  theory,  pre- 
senting the  type  of  evidence  which  has  led 
on  to  the  wider  generalization.  Under  the 
discussions  which  the  theory  has  originated 
facts  previously  familiar  have  been  contem- 
plated in  a  different  light,  as  bearing  upon  a 
general  plan  or  order  of  procedure  apparent 
in  the  history  of  organized  existence.  The 
consequent  gain  for  the  theory  is  altogether 
favorable  to  the  restricted  doctrine  that  al- 
lied species  have  had  a  common  descent,  or 
that  a  single  type  of  organism  may  under  the 
law  of  evolution  lead  to  the  appearance  of 
different  orders  or  races  of  animals. 

The  clear  advance  thus  made  in  our  con- 
ceptions of  the  history  of  the  universe  will 
appear  by  simple  statement  of  negative  re- 
sults following  from  the  admission  of  the  mod- 
ified form  of  doctrine  just  given.  These  in- 
volve the  rejection  of  views  previously  held, 
not  by  religious  men  in  religious  interests, 
"but  by  men  generally,  as  the  natural  conse- 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  149 

quence  of  the  want  of  scientific  investigations 
fitted  to  guide  the  public  mind.  So  far  as  a 
general  conclusion  has  gained  assent,  men 
show  no  reluctance  to  accept  the  clear  logical 
inferences  following  from  the  investigation  of 
nature. 

Among  these  results  is  rejection  of  fixedness 
of  species  as  implying  impossibility  of  deviation 
from  a  single  normal  type  of  structure.  The 
possibility  of  adaptive  changes  being  granted, 
the  absolute  fixedness  of  species  in  the  rigid 
sense  formerly  acknowledged  is  abandoned. 
How  great  the  modification  of  view  must  be, 
is  much  more  difficult  to  decide,  and  hardly 
admits  of  exact  statement.  There  is  certainly 
no  denial  of  distinction  of  species,  nor  can  such 
denial  ever  find  acceptance,  whatever  be  the 
advance  of  theory,  for  the  distinctions  are  so 
broad  as  to  render  this  impossible.  But  the 
whole  work  of  classification  of  the  different 
orders  of  animal  life,  exceedingly  difficult  in 
any  case,  has  been  rendered  much  more  per- 
plexing in  consequence  of  the  accumulation 
of  evidence  favoring  the  doctrine  of  evolution. 
What  can  properly  be  regarded  as  the  origin 
of  a  new  species,  and  what  as  a  mere  modifi- 
cation or  advance  in  a  species  already  recog- 


150  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

nized,  are  questions  for  which  it  is  difficult  to 
find  an  exact  answer.  The  theory  of  the 
"origin  of  species"  by  natural  selection  seems 
placed  in  an  awkward  perplexity  as  to  what 
constitutes  origin  of  a  new  order  of  life.  And 
this  difficulty  must  be  regarded  as  a  constant 
attendant  on  the  scheme  of  thought,  since 
"  adaptive  changes "  must  be  of  slow  pro- 
gress, and  historically  obscure,  inasmuch  as  a 
succession  of  very  slight  differences  must  con- 
tribute to  a  general  result.  In  this  way  -it 
may  even  become  matter  of  keen  discussion 
what  actually  constitutes  organic  advance. 
Mr.  Darwin  admits  serious  difficulty  at  this 
point.  He  says,  "Here  we  enter  on  a  very 
intricate  subject,  for  naturalists  have  not  de- 
fined to  each  other's  satisfaction  what  is  meant 
by  an  advance  in  organization."  *  Thus  there 
is  dispute  among  competent  authorities  as  to 
which  may  properly  be  considered  the  highest 
order  of  plants,  and  which  the  highest  order 
of  fishes.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  compara- 
tively easy  to  decide  among  the  more  highly 
organized  animals,  when  an  advance  is  made, 
by  reference  to  increased  complexity  in  struct- 
ure, or  provision  of  separate  organs  for  ac- 

*  Origin  of  Species,  4th  ed.  p.  14L 


LIFE    AND   ITS  DEVELOPMENT.  151 

complishment  of  distinct  functions.  These 
considerations,  however,  suffice  to  indicate 
how  many  and  complicated  are  the  subjects 
requiring  to  be  examined  on  evidence,  and 
adjusted  in  their  relations  to  each  other,  be- 
fore it  can  be  possible  to  get  beyond  surmise, 
in  order  to  formulate  a  complete  scientific 
theory.  That  "adaptive  changes"  by  nat- 
ural law  of  evolution  are  not  only  possible, 
but  that  they  frequently  occur  under  obser- 
vation, admits  of  no  question;  but  whether 
this  includes  changes  of  structure  such  as  im- 
ply origin  of  species  may  still  be  subject  of 
grave  doubt.  The  alterations  made  by  Mr. 
Darwin  in  successive  editions  of  his  book, 
from  the  first  edition  in  1859,  to  the  sixth 
edition  in  1872,*  introduced,  as  he  explains, 
"  according  as  the  evidence  has  become  some- 
what stronger  or  weaker,"  are  sufficient  to 
suggest  that  a  vast  amount  of  work  remains  to 
be  done  before  a  well-defined  theory  can  be  for- 
mulated. While  there  is  universal  agreement 
as  to  the  possibility  of  "  adaptive  changes  "  to 
which  Mr.  Darwin  provisionally  restricted  his 
theory  on  account  of  the  investigations  of 

*  It  may  be  well  to  mention  here  that  the  third  American  edi- 
tion is  from  the  fifth  English  edition. 


152  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

Nageli  as  to  plants,  and  those  of  Broca  as  to 
animals,  there  is  much  diversity  of  opinion 
concerning  the  wider  application  of  the  theory 
of  evolution.  This  diversity  arises  in  part  from 
the  varying  estimate  of  the  value  of  evidence 
as  now  accumulated,  and  in  part  from  the 
varying  conception  of  the  completeness  of 
our  records  of  the  ancient  history  of  organism 
as  presented  by  geology.  There  is  as  yet  no 
general  consensus  of  opinion,  nor  is  there 
likely  to  be  for  a  long  time  to  come.  Mr. 
Darwin  himself  is  sufficiently  cautious  and 
faithful  to  observational  methods,  to  admit 
that  there  are  serious  difficulties,  of  some  of 
which  he  ventures  only  to  say  that  they  "  are 
greatly  diminished,"  while  some  have  disap- 
peared. Other  writers,  such  as  Haeckel,  with 
greatly  less  caution,  and  with  much  greater 
alacrity  in  leaping  over  chasms,  are  prepared 
to  go  much  further  and  faster  than  Darwin. 
Many  more  are  exceedingly  doubtful  as  to 
the  scientific  value  of  the  evidence  at  com- 
mand, being,  as  Mr.  Darwin  has  said,  "much 
shaken  in-  their  former  belief."  *  And  of  many 
it  must  be  said  that  they  are  convinced  that 
the  evidence  is  far  from  warranting  the  con- 

•  Origin  of  Species,  6th  ed.,  p.  289. 


LIFE   AND   ITS  DEVELOPMENT.  153 

elusion  that  all  organized  existence  can  be 
traced  to  "only  a  few  forms,"  or  to  "one," 
according  to  the  alternatives  suggested  by 
Darwin  in  the  closing  sentence  of  his  book. 

Waiving,  then,  meanwhile,  as  the  state  of 
scientific  evidence  warrants  us  to  do,  the 
question  of  the  probable  number  of  primor- 
dial forms  in  which  organized  existence  ap- 
peared, there  is  at  least  another  definite  re- 
sult to  be  recorded  as  following  from  even  a 
modified  recognition  of  a  theory  of  develop- 
ment, that  is  the  rejection  of  belief  in  the 
simultaneous  origin  of  all  species  or  orders 
of  animal  life  existing  now  in  the  world. 
The  scientific  conception  of  the  history  of 
animal  life  is,  that  there  has  been  a  histori- 
cal progression  in  the  appearance  of  animals, 
in  so  far  as  lower  orders  took  precedence 
of  higher,  while  the  higher  have  shown  large 
power  of  adaptation  to  the  circumstances  in 
which  they  have  been  placed.  In  accordance 
with  the  whole  principles  regulating  the  rela- 
tions of  religion  and  science,  religious  men, 
scientific  and  non-scientific,  will  readily  ac- 
quiesce in  this  modification  of  general  belief, 
as  largely  favored  by  evidence  which  geology 
supplies,  and  supported  by  testimony  drawn 


154  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

from  the  actually  existing  order  of  things; 
and  they  will  do  so  with  clear  recognition 
that  this  view  involves  no  conflict  with  scrip- 
tural statement,  and  is  so  far  from  containing 
in  it  any  thing  antagonistic  to  the  fundamen- 
tal conception  of  the  supernatural  origin  of 
existence,  that  it  harmonizes  with  it,  even 
intensifying  the  demand  upon  a  transcendent 
cause  for  the  rational  explanation  of  the  ad- 
mitted order  of  things. 

Having  thus  indicated  in  definite  form  the 
favorable  impression  made  on  the  public  mind 
by  the  theory  of  evolution  under  a  law  of  nat- 
ural selection,  it  will  suffice  to  indicate  very 
briefly  the  more  prominent  difficulties  with 
which  the  theory  has  grappled,  but  from 
which  it  has  not  escaped.  In  doing  so,  it 
should  be  said  that  the  careful  and  deliber- 
ate manner  in  which  Mr.  Darwin  has  faced 
the  host  of  difficulties  which  have  gathered 
around  is  deserving  of  highest  praise,  as  in 
harmony  with  the  scientific  spirit,  and  in 
marked  contrast  with  the  light-and-go-easy 
style  in  which  others,  such  as  Haeckel,  and 
even  Schmidt,  pass  over  the  ground,  an- 
nouncing things  as  undoubted  facts,  and  even 
"self-evident"  truths,  of  which  no  man  can 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  155 

speak  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  seems  a  reasonable  ground  of 
complaint  against  many  opponents  of  the  the- 
ory, which  Mr.  Darwin  urges  specially  against 
Mr.  St.  George  Mivart,  that  it  is  no  part  of 
their  plan  ' '  to  give  the  various  facts  and  con- 
siderations opposed  to  their  own  conclusions," 
while  marshalling  the  difficulties  against  an 
evolution  theory.  And  yet  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  a  great  service  is  done  to 
science  in  a  period  of  transition,  when  diffi- 
culties are  powerfully  urged  against  a  popu- 
lar hypothesis,  as  an  injury  is  done  to  science 
by  precipitate  and  ill-considered  arguments 
in  support  of  such  a  hypothesis. 

Of  the  most  serious  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  a  theory  of  descent  by  evolution,  the  first 
concerns  the  nature  of  the  evidence,  inasmuch 
as  all  change  coming  under  observation  does 
not  indicate  progression  or  improvement  in  the 
organism.  The  importance  of  this  may  be 
best  indicated  by  quoting  Mr.  Darwin's  ex- 
planatory words  as  to  alterations  in  the  fifth 
edition  of  his  book  on  species.  He  says,  "In 
the  earlier  editions  of  my  Origin  of  Species, 
I  probably  attributed  too  much  to  the  action 
of  natural  selection  or  survival  of  the  fittest. 


156  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

I  have  altered  the  fifth  edition  of  the  Origin 
so  as  to  confine  my  remarks  to  adaptive 
changes  of  structure.  I  had  not  formerly 
sufficiently  considered  the  existence  of  many 
structures,  which  appear  to  be,  as  far  as  we 
can  judge,  neither  beneficial  nor  injurious,  and 
this  I  believe  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  over- 
sights as  yet  detected  in  my  work.'.'  When 
it  is  certain  that  deviation  from  the  normal 
structure  may  take  place  which  is  a  disadvan- 
tage to  the  individual,  and  that  this  may  de- 
scend to  offspring;  when  it  is  also  shown  that 
deviation  may  occur  which  appears  to  serve 
no  end,  that  is,  contributes  to  no  phase  of 
functional  activity;  when  besides  advantages 
gained  are  lost,  and  the  race  returns  to  its 
original  type  of  structure;  and  when  farther 
there  are  examples  of  degeneration,  as  in  par- 
asitic races, — such  facts  interpose  special  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  an  all-embracing  theory 
of  progress  by  natural  selection.  Besides,  as 
deviations  occur  of  an  unfavorable  kind  among 
domesticated  animals  under  the  care  of  man, 
it  becomes  obvious  that  progress  may  be  read- 
ily lost  even  in  most  favorable  circumstances. 
The  next  outstanding  difficulty  is  that  of 
meeting  the  requirements  of  logical  inference. 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  157 

This  has  been  specially  urged  by  Mr.  Mivart 
as  bearing  upon  the  "  incipient  stages  "  of  ad- 
vance, and  the  difficulty  certainly  presses 
heavily  at  that  point.  Natural  selection  may 
account  for  much  in  the  history  of  higher  or- 
ganisms where  powers  of  sensibility  and  lo- 
comotion are  great,  but  how  can  we  find  in 
natural  selection  an  adequate  explanation  of 
progress  in  organisms  within  which  these  pow- 
ers are  at  the  lowest.  The  difficulty  is  to  get 
a  cause  sufficient  to  account  for  the  start  of 
a  movement  so  vast  as  that  which  is  to  cul- 
minate in  man.  Mr.  Darwin  feels  the  force 
of  this  difficulty,  and  replies  thus,  "  as  we  have 
no  facts  to  guide  us,  speculation  on  the  sub- 
ject is  almost  useless."*  But  this  perplexity 
which  is  most  glaring  at  the  beginning  of  the 
upward  course,  clings  to  the  theory  at  every 
stage  in  the  combination  of  struggle  and  im-: 
provement, — descent  involving  a  real  ascent. 
Whether  the  organism  be  more  or  less  com- 
plex, it  depends  upon  external  causes  for  its 
improvement,  and  the  dependence  continues 
at  every  stage.  Granting  that  there  is  every- 
where struggle  for  existence  and  survival  of 
the  fittest,  are  these  sufficient  to  account  for 

*  Origin  of  Species,  6th.  ed.  chap.  iv.  p.  100. 


158  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

results  so  great  as  are  involved  in  unceasing 
advance  of  organism  ? 

If  it  be  argued  that  they  are  sufficient,  a 
serious  perplexity  comes  from  the  opposite 
quarter, — How  does  it  happen  that  all  organic 
existence  does  not  advance  together  to  a  com- 
mon elevation?  If  the  theory  accounts  for 
advance,  how  shall  we  account  for  the  want 
of  it?  The  difficulties  are  as  great  for  the 
theory  in  view  of  the  large  body  of  facts  it 
does  not  attempt  to  include,  as  in  the  facts  it 
strives  to  embrace.  Agassiz  put  this  difficulty 
with  much  force  in  1857,  and  it  has  not  re- 
ceived any  satisfactory  answer.  He  said,  ' '  It 
is  a  fact  which  seems  to  be  entirely  overlooked 
by  those  who  assume  an  extensive  influence 
of  physical  causes  upon  the  very  existence  of 
organized  beings,  that  the  most  diversified 
types  of  animals  and  plants  are  everywhere 
found  under  identical  circumstances."*  If,  as 
Mr.  Darwin  says,  "looking  to  the  first  dawn 
of  life,"  we  may  believe  that  "  all  organic 
beings  presented  the  simplest  structure";  if 
the  struggle  for  existence  is  uniformly  en- 

*  Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  United  States,  In- 
troduction, Boston,  1857;  and  Essay  on  Classification,  p.  15,  pub- 
lished separately;  London,  1859.  See  Appendix  VL 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  %159 

countered  and  leads  to  survival  of  the  fittest, 
how  is  it  that  within  the  same  area,  organ- 
ism has  not  advanced  to  similar  complexity? 
If  under  constraint  of  the  evidence  for  the 
theory,  we  surrender  the  doctrine  of  inevita- 
ble fixedness  of  species,  how  shall  we  never- 
theless account  for  the  permanence  of  species  ? 
It  is  not  suggested  that  there  is  at  successive 
stages  * '  new  and  simple  forms  continually  be- 
ing produced  by  spontaneous  generation.'7 
This  hypothesis  of  Lamark  is  rejected  by 
Mr.  Darwin,*  as  it  is  by  almost  all  scientific 
observers?  How,  then,  can  we  explain  the 
facts?  We  are  told  that  certain  orders  have 
"fallen  out7'  in  the  march  of  progress;  but 
we  need  a  scientific  account  of  this  which 
shall  harmonize  with  a  theory  of  action  of  en- 
vironment, and  such  an  account  is  not  forth- 
coming. It  may  be  said  that  the  very  success 
of  the  theory  by  accumulation  of  most  strik- 
ing and  important  evidence,  is  bringing  it  into 
difficulty,  and  suggesting  its  insufficiency.  The 
more  powerful  and  imposing  the  action  of  the 
law  of  natural  selection,  the  more  pressing 
becomes  the  need  for  a  scientific  explanation, 
at  once  distinct  and  harmonious,  which  will 

*   Oriqi.n,  4th  ed.  p.  143. 


160,  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

account  for  the  persistence  of  species,  when 
struggle  for  existence  goes  on  under  similar  or 
even  analogous  action  of  environment.  The 
presence  everywhere  of  these  lower  forms 
alongside  of  the  higher,  adds  greatly  to  the  at- 
tractiveness of  nature,  and  not  even  the  grand- 
eur of  a  universal  advance  towards  the  high- 
er levels  of  organization  would  make  up  for 
the  disappearance  of  the  marvels  of  lower 
orders  of  animals.  A  monotony  of  grandeur 
may  compare  unfavorably  with  the  wealth  of 
variety  and  adversity;  and  so  a  law  of  con- 
tinuity or  persistence  may  be  found  adding 
to  the  greatness  of  a  universe  in  which  a  law 
of  progress  or  evolution  also  finds  uniform 
application. 

Upon  this  contrast  between  persistence  and 
progress,  general  attention  will  henceforth  be 
concentrated  in  judging  of  the  place  and  value 
of  a  theory  of  descent.  There  is  no  need 
for  hurry  or  impatience  in  this  matter.  The 
words  of  Mr.  Darwin  will  find  ready  assent 
as  he  says,  "  No  one  ought  to  feel  surprise  at 
much  yet  remaining  unexplained  on  the  origin 
of  species,  if  we  make  due  allowance  for  our 
profound  ignorance  on  the  mutual  relations 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  at  the  present 


LIFE    AND    ITS   DEVELOPMENT.  161 

time,  and  still  more  during  past  ages."  *  In 
accordance  with  this  acknowledgment,  a  wide 
range  of  scientific  research  still  remains  to  be 
undertaken,  and  religious  thought  can  have 
nothing  but  friendly  interest  in  the  work, 
as  it  may  well  be  assured  of  drawing  thence 
fresh  contributions  of  great  value  for  higher 
speculation  concerning  the  government  of 
the  universe. 

*  Origin  of  Species,  6th.  ed.  chap.  iv.  p.  100. 


LECTURE  Y. 

EELATIONS  OF  LOWER  AND  HIGHER  ORGAN- 
ISMS. 

T^ROM  the  general  aspects  of  the  theory 
of  species,  we  pass  to  the  consideration 
of  distinct  groups  of  organism,  with  the  view 
of  ascertaining  their  relations  to  each  other. 
In  doing  so,  it  is  better  to  begin  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  scale,  leaving  for  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  inquiry  the  higher  types  of  organism. 
In  this  department  of  the  subject,  special  ob- 
ligations are  due  to  the  wide  range  of  inves- 
tigations either  occasioned  or  stimulated  by 
the  theory  of  evolution.  For,  whatever  may 
be  the  ultimate  award  passed  on  this  theory, 
there  will  be  a  unanimous  recognition  of  the 
great  value  to  science  attending  on  the  varied 
forms  of  inquiry  stimulated  by  the  writings 
of  Mr.  Charles  Darwin.  And  one  obvious 
and  strong  reason  for  such  acknowledgment 
is  that  so  many  of  the  results  of  these  re- 
searches have  an  inherent  value  quite  dis- 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  163 

tinct   from    their   testimony  in  favor   of  the 

theory  that  the  struggle  for  existence  is  the 

^principal  factor  in  the  origin  of  new  species. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  fields  of  obser- 
vation thus  opened,  is  that  concerned  with 
the  fertilization  of  plants  by  the  intervention 
of  insects  and  birds.  A  beginning  in  this  de- 
partment was  made  by  the  German  naturalist, 
Christian  Konrad  Sprengel,  who  published  in 
1793  the  report  of  his  observations.  In  this 
he  has  been  followed  by  Darwin,  in  1862;  by 
Dr.  Hooker,  Professor  Asa  Gray  whose  con- 
tributions appeared  in  the  American  Jour- 
nal  of  Science  and  Art  in  1862,  and  1863, 
Moggridge,  Fritz  Miiller,  and  Sir  John  Lub- 
bock.  The  facts  now  accumulated,  rank  as 
an  important  contribution  to  botany  and  zo- 
ology, and  naturally  fall  within  the  circle  of 
recent  advances  to  which  it  is  desirable  that 
attention  be  turned. 

The  general  result  is  one  of  great  interest, 
as  illustrating  a  striking  degree  of  interde- 
pendence between  lower  and  higher  organ- 
isms,—  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdom 
contributing  to  each  other's  subsistence  and 
propagation.  Flowers  present  special  attrac- 
tions to  insects  flying  around,  alluring  them 


164:  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

by  varied  colors,  and  providing  for  them  by 
secreting  stores  of  honey;  on  the  other  hand, 
these  insects  (flies,  bees,  wasps,  etc.),  seeking 
the  honey  which  satisfies  their  wants,  at  the 
same  time  carry  the  pollen  from  one  flower 
to  another,  thus  providing  for  the  fertilizing 
of  the  plants.  In  some  cases,  fertilization  is 
secured  by  a  natural  process  within  the  or- 
ganism itself;  in  other  cases,  the  pollen  is 
scattered  over  a  region  by  the  wind;  but 
the  most  wonderful,  and  at  the  same  time 
efficient  mode  of  providing  for  the  growth 
of  vigorous  plants,  is  fertilization  by  the 
agency  of  insect  life. 

A  brief  outline  of  the  ordinary  structure  of 
the  flower  will  introduce  to  a  ready  appreci- 
ation of  the  scientific  interest  attaching  to  this 
last  mode  of  fertilization,  both  as  concerning 
the  functions  of  different  portions  of  the  flow- 
ers, and  the  relation  of  dependence  established 
between  higher  and  lower  forms  of  organism, 
so  that  each  is  dependent  on  the  other. 

Every  flower  as  it  unfolds  from  the  bud, 
consists  of  a  series  of  whorls,  or  layers  of  sub- 
stance twined  or  twirled  round  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  unfold  or  coil  back,  as  the  flower 
opens.  The  outermost  of  these  whorls  (calyx) 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  165 

is  a  mere  covering  or  sheath,  usually  of  a 
green  color,  which  protects  the  bud  during 
the  more  tender  period,  curling  up  and  with- 
ering as  the  flower  opens,  spreading  forth  its 
beauty.  The  second  whorl  (corolla)  is  what  we 
more  commonly  regard  as  the  flower  proper, 
the  colored  leaves,  or  cup,  or  bell,  according 
to  the  specific  shape  distinguishing  the  plant. 
The  third  whorl  consists  of  a  series  of  stalks 
or  filaments  (stamens)  which  as  the  flower  ma- 
tures or  ripens  stand  up  distinct  from  each 
other,  each  one  having  at  its  summit  a  little 
tuft  or  cushion  (anther)  covered  with  a  fine 
dust  or  powder  (pollen).  The  fourth  or  inner- 
most whorl,  the  centre  piece  of  the  flower 
(pistil)  is  that  in  which  the  seed  is  generated 
and  brought  to  maturity.  We  may  thus  say 
of  the  flower,  that  its  outermost  whorl  is  a 
temporary  covering  which  withers  and  shrinks 
out  of  view,  when  the  beauty  of  the  inner 
structure  is  laid  open;  that  the  second  is  that 
which  attracts  the  eye  by  the  loveliness  of  its 
hues;  while  the  two  which  belong  to  the  in- 
ternal structure  of  the  flower  are  concerned 
with  the  reproduction  or  propagation  of  the 
plant,  providing  for  the  healthy  germ  from 
which  a  fresh  plant  of  the  same  order  may 


166  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

spring  up.  The  relation  of  the  fine  yellow 
powder  produced  at  the  tips  of  the  third 
whorl,  to  the  seeds  which  are  gathered  to- 
gether within  the  fourth  whorl,  is  the  matter 
to  which  special  attention  has  been  directed 
by  the  recent  discoveries  which  have  rewarded 
patient  research.  The  fine  powder  or  pollen 
needs  to  be  carried  to  the  seed,  so  that  its 
properties  may  operate  upon  that  seed,  if  it 
is  to  be  fertilized,  or  so  matured,  as  to  fulfil 
its  function  in  generating  a  new  plant  when 
it  is  committed  to  the  soil.  In  many  cases  it 
is  enough  that  the  fine  powder  should  fall 
down  from  its  elevation  on  the  seeds  below. 
This  is  self-fertilization,  and  is  easily  provided 
for  by  the  mere  bending  of  the  head  of  the 
flower  as  it  approaches  maturity,  or  by  the 
swaying  of  it  in  the  breeze.  But  a  more  dif- 
ficult, and  as  we  might  be  inclined  to  add, 
more  precarious,  because  less  certain,  method 
for  fertilization  is  required  in  many  cases. 
The  experiments  carried  on  by  all  our  gar- 
deners, and  in  a  still  more  extended  scale  in 
all  our  centres  of  botanic  research,  have  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  in  many  cases,  the  yellow 
powder  of  one  plant  must  be  in  some  manner 
carried  over  to  the  seed  produced  within  an- 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  167 

other  flower,  if  that  seed  is  to  yield  a  satis- 
factory result  to  the  horticulturist. 

We  have  thus  two  prominent  facts  here. 
The  one  is  the  essential  importance  of  the  pollen 
for  fertilization;  and  the  other,  the  need  for  the 
transference  of  the  pollen  from  one  plant  to  an- 
other in  order  to  secure  reproduction  of  vig- 
orous growth  by  the  sowing  of  the  seed.  As 
to  the  first,  the  pollen,  which  appears  a  fine 
powder  or  flour  contains  fluid  protoplasm, 
that  which  Professor  Huxley  has  described  as 
the  "  single  physical  basis  of  life  under  all  the 
diversities  of  vital  existence."  *  These  pollen 
grains  falling  on  the  seed  discharge  their  pro- 
toplasmic fluid  upon  it,  and  by  this  means 
contribute  to  fertilization.  This  original  or 
primordial  form  of  vitalising  agency  is  carried 
from  one  part  of  the  flower  to  another,  and 
this  transference  is  the  law  regulating  the 
propagation  of  flowering  plants. 

But,  just  at  this  point,  we  come  upon 
the  most  striking  results  of  recent  research. 
Though  all  pollen  is  of  this  primary  nature, 
named  protoplasm,  it  is  not  found  to  hold 
true  that  pollen  is  of  the  same  value  for  fer- 
tilization from  whatever  quarter  it  comes. 

*  Lay  Sermons,  chap,  vii.,  p.  134. 


168  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

On  the  contrary,  most  important  differences 
result  according  to  the  source  of  the  pollen. 
There  is  first  the  process  of  self-fertilization. 
But  in  many  cases, — Mr.  Darwin  has  shown 
that  this  holds  of  the  majority  of  the  orchids, 
— transference  of  the  pollen  from  one  plant 
to  another  proves  to  be  a  great  advantage,  if 
not  an  actual  necessity  for  propagation  of  the 
plant.  This  process,  known  as  cross-fertiliza- 
tion, gives  a  healthy  and  vigorous  growth; 
want  of  it,  will  lead  to  degeneration,  and  ulti- 
mate extinction.  This  discovery  has  intro- 
duced a  whole  series  of  the  most  striking  ob- 
servations, throwing  a  flood  of  light  on  the 
distribution  and  interdependence  of  distinct 
forms  of  organism.  The  necessary  relation 
between  the  pollen  and  the  seed  having  been 
acknowledged,  and  next  the  value  of  transfer- 
ence of  pollen  from  one  plant  to  another,  the 
first  step  in  the  line  of  discovery  was  made  by 
the  observation  of  a  natural  provision  to  pre- 
vent self -fertilization  by  rendering  it  impossible 
that  the  pollen  of  a  plant  should  fall  on  the 
seed  of  that  plant.  This  entrance  on  the  line 
of  discovery  was  made  by  Sprengel  so  far 
back  as  1790,  by  whom  it  was  observed  that 
in  many  plants  the  pollen  and  the  seed  did 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  169 

not  come  to  ripeness  at  the  same  time.*  In 
some  cases,  the  pollen  is  ripened  before  the 
seeds  are  ready;  in  other  cases,  the  order 
of  events  is  reversed.  This  observation  nat- 
urally suggested  transference  of  pollen  from 
one  plant  to  another;  and  this,  connected 
with  the  continual  coming  and  going  of  flies, 
bees,  and  butterflies,  led  to  the  further  dis- 
covery, that  insects  unwittingly  perform  a 
large  part  of  the  work  needful  in  order  to 
provide  for  fertilization.  Mr.  Darwin  has 
pointed  out  that  from  the  paper  of  Robert 
Brown  in  the  Linnean  Transactions,  in  1833 ; 
and  from  that  of  Dr.  Hooker  in  the  Philo- 
sophic Transactions  for  1854,  the  peculiar  phe- 
nomena had  begun  to  awaken  scientific  inter- 
est. It  was,  however,  when  the  researches 
as  to  origin  of  species  had  given  fresh  motive 
to  observation  concerning  the  relations  of  dif- 
ferent types  of  organism,  that  the  whole  facts 
were  brought  to  view,  separately  recorded, 
and  at  length  systematized  so  as  to  lead  to 
their  full  interpretation.  Mr.  Darwin  himself 
•concentrated  on  the  orchids  as  peculiarly  inter- 
esting and  suggestive,  while  a  host  of  work- 

*  Darwin's  Fertilization  of  Orchids,  p.  2;  Lubbock's  Scientific 
Lectures,  p.  8. 


170  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

ers  all  over  the  world  were  turning  their  ener- 
gies into  this  new  field  of  observation  which 
promised  ample  return  for  patient  research. 
As  a  reward  of  these  investigations  impor- 
tant facts  have  been  established  on  ample 
evidence.  First,  it  has  been  confirmed  by 
varying  lines  of  evidence  that  transference  of 
pollen,  or  cross-fertilization,  is  of  special  value 
in  the  development  of  plant  life.  Investiga- 
tion has  strengthened  the  evidence  of  disad- 
vantage arising  from  fertilization  by  exclusive 
dependence  on  self-produced  pollen.  Fritz 
Miiller  has  recorded  a  variety  of  observations 
that  the  pollen  of  some  flowers  has  so  little 
influence  on  the  seed  produced  on  the  same 
stem  that  when  it  falls  upon  the  seeds  no 
effect  is  produced;  the  pollen  lies  there  as  if 
possessed  of  no  more  vitalizing  power  than 
grains  of  dust.  And,  what  is  even  more  sur- 
prising, Miiller  has  found  examples  in  which 
the  pollen  does  act  upon  the  seeds  of  its  own 
flower,  but  acts  injuriously,  insomuch  that  the 
flower,  the  pollen,  and  the  seed-producing 
portion  of  the  plant  begin  to  decay.*  So 

*  Sir  John  Lubbock's  Scientific  Lectures,  p.  3.  Mr.  Darwin  re* 
fers  to  Fritz  Miiller's  papers  as  reported  in  Botanische  Zeitung, 
1869-70.  Appendix  IX. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  171 

deep  has  been  the  impression  made  on  Mr. 
Darwin's  mind  by  the  evidence  of  provision 
for  transference  of  pollen,  that  he  closes  his 
valuable  and  interesting  book  on  the  Fertiliza- 
tion of  Orchids  with  the  following  statements. 
Having  remarked  that ' '  self-fertilization  would 
have  been  an  incomparably  safer  and  easier 
process  than  the  transportal  of  pollen  from 
flower  to  flower,"  he  adds  these  words, — "  It 
is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  Nature 
tells  us,  in  the  most  emphatic  manner,  that 
she  abhors  perpetual  self-fertilization."  * 

The  next  result  secured  presents  an  impor- 
tant relation  between  animal  life  and  vege- 
table. These  flowers  do  not  depend  for  their 
fertilization  upon  the  action  of  the  wind, 
which  in  scattering  profusely  in  all  directions 
must  occasion  large  waste  of  pollen.  There 
is  found  to  be  distinct  provision  for  carrying 
the  pollen  from  one  flower  to  another  by  in- 
sects, such  as  the  bees,  whose  industry  in 
gathering  honey  has  been  celebrated  from 
ancient  times,  specially  because  of  our  inter- 
est in  the  store-house,  but  with  little  sus- 
picion of  the  double  work  being  done  by 

*  The  Various  Contrivances  by  which  Orchids  are  fertilized  by  In~ 
sects,  2d  ed.  p.  293. 


172  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

the  bees,  who  add  to  their  other  industry 
that  of  horticulturists.  These  bees  are  the 
pollen-bearers, — the  recognized  local  carriers, 
regularly  on  the  road,  —  doing  the  work 
which  the  flowers,  in  lack  of  locomotive 
power,  could  not  do  for  each  other.  Or, 
looking  at  the  relation  of  things  from  an- 
other point  of  view,  the  bees  are  at  the 
same  time  gathering  the  honey,  and  sowing 
the  seed  for  a  future  harvest.  This  refer- 
ence to  the  honey,  however,  introduces  to 
notice  a  companion  series  of  facts,  showing 
the  provision  in  completed  form  for  an  inter- 
change of  services.  The  plants  supply  an  at- 
traction to  the  animals,  while  the  animals 
render  a  service  to  the  plants.  This  phase 
of  interdependence  is  made  more  conspicuous 
by  the  contrast  apparent  in  the  structure  and 
functions  of  plants  fertilized  by  the  wind, 
such  as  the  larger  shrubs  and  trees,  which  as 
they  present  a  greater  surface  to  the  breeze, 
do  not  call  for  the  same  detailed  provision  for 
carrying  the  pollen.  In  contrast  with  these 
more  bulky  representatives  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  the  more  lowly  and  insignificant  in 
size,  as  well  as  more  short-lived,  present 
many  attractions  in  color,  scent,  and  secre- 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  173 

• 

tion  of  honey,  all  adapted  to  the  nature  of 
insects,  suited  for  the  work  of  pollen  carry- 
ing. The  attractions  of  form,  color,  and  scent 
in  the  flowers  are  well  known  to  us;  but  they 
are  also  appreciated  by  the  insects, — a  fact 
which  may  possibly  suggest  that  a  high  de- 
gree of  intellectual  power  is  not  required  for 
appreciation  of  these  qualities,  as  no  one  pro- 
fesses that  bees  rank  high  intellectually.  At 
the  same  time,  if  comparisons  are  to  be  made 
at  this  point,  the  farther  suggestion  may  also 
be  introduced,  that  there  is  little  testimony 
to  intelligence  where  search  for  food  is  con- 
cerned, and  while  the  human  race  do  not  feed 
on  flowers,  insects  are  constantly  feeding 
from  them.  The  attractions  in  the  two  cases 
therefore  vary  considerably  in  their  signifi- 
cance. Restricting  attention,  however,  to  the 
special  field  of  observation  now  before  us, 
with  the  view  simply  of  ascertaining  the  re- 
lations of  plants  and  insects,  color  and  honey 
present  the  two  most  prominent  attractions 
accounting  for  the  perpetual  hum  of  life 
heard  amongst  the  flowering  plants.  Differ- 
ent parts  of  the  flower  provide  for  variegated 
coloring,  and  stores  of  honey;  these  present 
attractions  to  the  insects;  and  the  structure 


174  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

of  the  flowers  as  they  provide  for  the  landing 
of  the  insects,  and  require  that  they  pene- 
trate to  their  centre  for  the  secreted  honey, 
secures  that  the  work  needful  for  fertilization 
be  effectually  done.  This  last  feature  of  adap- 
tation is  that  on  which  attention  may  be  spe- 
cially concentrated  here.  Mr.  Darwin  in  treat- 
ing of  orchids  has  described  this  part  of  their 
structure  in  these  words; — "  In  almost  all  the 
species,  one  of  the  petals  (or  leaves  of  the 
flower)  which  is  properly  the  upper  one,  is 
larger  than  the  others  and  stands  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  flower,  where  it  offers  a 
landing-place  for  insects."  *  Towards  the  in- 
ner or  root  end  of  this  leaf  (labellum)  is  the 
gland,  in  some  flowers  appearing  only  as  a 
slit,  in  others  forming  like  a  tube,  (nectary) 
which  secrets  the  honey.  Just  over  the  en- 
trance to  the  part  where  the  honey  is  to  be 
found  stands  that  which  secrets  the  pollen 
prepared  for  fertilizing  some  other  flower. 
So  soon  as  the  bee  or  other  insect  presses  its 
head  well  into  the  centre  of  the  flower,  some 
of  the  pollen  adheres  to  it;  when  the  head  is 
withdrawn,  this  pollen  is  borne  off  to  the 
flower  which  the  bee  next  visits;  and  as  the 

•  Fertilization,  p.  5. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  175 

head  is  pressed  into  the  core  of  this  flower 
the  pollen  is  deposited,  and  provision  for  fer- 
tilization is  complete.  Special  features  ap- 
pearing in  certain  classes  of  the  orchids  illus- 
trate how  it  is  possible  for  the  bee  so  laden 
to  visit  many  flowers  without  depositing  the 
pollen,  yet  a  little  later  accomplish  the  object 
quite  simply.  The  following  illustration  from 
Mr.  Darwin's  account  of  the  first  orchid  se- 
lected, will  suffice.  Just  above  the  entrance 
to  the  honey  store,  lies  a  pouch  connected 
with  the  pollen  store.  As  the  head  of  the 
bee  is  pressed  down  towards  the  honey,  this 
pouch  is  burst  open,  and  from  it  issues  a  lit- 
tle sticky  gland  or  disc,  or  it  may  be  two  of 
these  discs.  These  adhere  at  once  to  the  head 
of  the  bee,  and  being  connected  by  a  slight 
band  with  packets  of  pollen  grains  so  soon  as 
the  animal  retires  the  pollen  is  drawn  with  it, 
standing  out  like  a  seed  vessel  on  the  head. 
The  strangest  part  of  the  contrivance  appears 
in  what  thereafter  follows.  ' '  The  viscid  mat- 
ter has  the  peculiar  chemical  quality,  of  set- 
ting like  cement,  hard  and  dry  in  a  few  min- 
utes." Suppose  both  the  little  viscid  balls 
have  been  withdrawn)  the  bands  bearing  the 
pollen  will  appear  "projecting  up  like  horns." 


176  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

•'How  then  can  the  flower  be  fertilized  ?  This 
is  effected  by  a  beautiful  contrivance;  though 
the  viscid  surface  remains  immovably  affixed, 
the  apparently  insignificant  and  minute  disc 
of  membrane  to  which  the  caudicle  adheres 
is  endowed  with  a  remarkable  power  of  con- 
traction, which  causes  the  pollinium  to  sweep 
through  an  angle  of  about  ninety  degrees,  al- 
ways in  one  direction  towards  the  apex  of  the 
proboscis,  in  the  course  of  thirty  seconds  on 
an  average.'7*  That  is,  the  two  erections  bear- 
ing packets  of  pollen  which  formerly  stood 
up  almost  perpendicular,  like  horns,  begin  to 
lower  until  they  reach  the  horizontal;  in  this 
way  when  the  bee  enters  a  flower  the  packets 
of  pollen  inevitably  touch  the  seed  stores,  com- 
municating what  is  required  for  their  fertiliza- 
tion. Nor  have  we  even  yet  the  whole  of 
the  contrivances  adapted  for  this  end.  ' '  Here 
comes  into  play  another  pretty  adaptation." 
The  seed  vessel  to  be  fertilized  is  very  sticky, 
"  but  not  so  viscid  as  when  touched  by  a  pol- 
linium to  pull  the  whole  off  an  insect's  head." 
But  it  is  sufficiently  adhesive  "to  break  the 
elastic  threads  by  which  the  packets  of  pollen 
grains  are  tied  together."  In  this  way,  it 

*  Fertilization,  p.  12. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  177 

tears  off  so  much  from  the  store  adhering 
to  the  head  of  the  bee,  and  still  leaves  there 
what  may  supply  the  requirements  of  many 
flowers  besides.  The  description  thus  given 
will  suffice  to  indicate  how  close  is  the  rela- 
tion of  the  lower  orders  of  animal  life  with 
vegetable  life,  and  will  illustrate  how  the 
lower  organism  may  be  dependent  for  exis- 
tence on  the  higher,  an  illustration  in  some 
respect  the  converse  of  the  facts  illustrating 
origin  of  species  by  development. 

There  remains  in  this  department  of  in- 
quiry only  one  additional  set  of  facts,  to 
which  reference  may  be  made,  as  illustrating 
distribution  of  work  among  insects  and  birds, 
assigning  them  to  different  orders  of  plants. 
This  will  illustrate  contrivance  on  a  still  wider 
scale,  discovering  distinct  sets  of  affinity,  which 
imply  common  localization  for  given  plants 
and  animals.  In  this  it  appears  that  flies, 
humble  bees,  and  birds  with  long  slender  bills, 
such  as  the  humming  birds,  all  have  a  share 
in  the  work  required  for  fertilizing  plants. 

There  is  one  example,  epipactis  latifolia, 
with  a  cup-shaped  labellum,  in  which  honey 
is  secreted,  and  which  bees  are  never  seen  to 
frequent.  What,  however,  the  bees  pass,  the 


178  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

wasps  suck  eagerly,  and  by  them  it  is  fertil- 
ized. Of  this  flower,  Mr.  Darwin  says, — "  It 
is  very  remarkable  that  the  sweet  nectar  of 
this  epipactis  should  not  be  attractive  to  any 
kind  of  bee.  If  wasps  were  to  become  ex- 
tinct in  any  district,  so  probably  would  the 
Epipactis  Latifolia"  * 

Another  example  there  is  of  an  orchid 
(Spiranthes  AutumnalisJ,  commonly  known  as 
Ladies'  Tresses,  having  a  series  of  spikes,  of 
which  the  lowest  flowers  are  first  matured, 
the  others  following  in  order  as  they  rise  tow- 
ards the  summit.  This  plant  is  frequented 
by  bees,  whose  practice  it  is  to  begin  with 
the  lowest  flowers  and  ascend  gradually  to 
the  top.  This  order  in  seeking  to  extract  the 
honey,  proves  to  be  the  proper  one  for  fertil- 
izing of  the  plant,  because  the  pollen  which 
the  bee  brings  will  be  received  by  the  riper 
flower  on  which  it  lands,  and  when  that  has 
been  deposited,  fresh  pollen  will  adhere  to  the 
bee  as  it  rises  to  the  less  matured  flowers,  and 
thus  it  departs  laden  with  pollen  destined  for 
the  lowest  flowers  of  the  next  plant  it  visits. •(• 

These  examples  introduce  us  to  a  general 
plan  for  fertilization  of  plants  by  the  inter- 

*  Fertilization,  p.  102.  t  *&•  P-  H3. 


*. 


i.   SECTION  OF  ORCHID   FLOWER,  SHOWING  POLLEN   VESSEL,  SEED  STORE,  AND   HONEY 

STORE.  2.     BEE    ENTERING  3.     POLLE  s     VESSEL.  4.     BEE     RETREATING. 

5.     BEE     PREPARED     FOR     ENTERING     ANOTHER     FLOWER. 


Caldertvood' 's  Lectures. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  179 

vention  of  insects,  so  complete  in  the  order  of 
distribution  that  we  may  classify  the  plants  ac- 
cording to  the  insect  by  which  they  are  fer- 
tilized, making  it  natural  to  speak  of  fly 
orchids,  spider  orchids,  wasp  orchids,  and  bee 
orchids.  In  all  cases  the  search  for  honey 
determines  the  visits  made,  leaving  still  unex- 
plained, however,  the  fact  that  the  nectar  of 
some  plants  is  shunned  by  certain  insects,  and 
eagerly  absorbed  by  others.  With  the  gen- 
eral source  of  attraction  in  the  flowering 
plants,  there  are  diversities  of  arrangement 
among  the  insects,  according  to  the  com- 
parative size  of  the  flower,  and  strength  re- 
quired in  order  to  penetrate  to  the  inner 
chamber  where  the  honey  is  stored.  Because 
of  the  minuteness  of  the  aperture,  there  are 
flowers  from  which  the  bee  can  not  draw  sup- 
plies; on  the  other  hand,  because  of  the  size 
and  strength  of  the  flower,  there  are  cases  in 
which  the  ordinary  bee  is  incapable  of  reach- 
ing the  store,  and  the  stronger  humble  bee 
alone  succeeds  in  effecting  an  entrance. 

There  is  thus  presented  in  mere  outline  a 
general  view  of  the  interdependence  of  lower 
and  higher  orders  of  organism.  While  each 
flower  develops  pollen  and  seed,  there  are 


180  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

arrangements  connected  with  the  ripening  of 
these  two,  which  restrain  or  even  prevent  self- 
fertilization.  Along  with  this  there  are  dis- 
tinct lines  of  evidence  to  establish  the  rule 
that  cross-fertilization,  or  transference  of  pol- 
len from  one  flower  to  the  seed  of  another, 
secures  the  growth  of  a  much  healthier  and 
more  vigorous  order.  Where  such  transfer- 
ence is  provided  for  otherwise  than  by  the 
wind,  the  attractiveness  of  the  flowers  brings 
to  them  at  the  proper  season,  the  insects  which 
carry  the  pollen,  and  to  each  class  of  insect  is 
distributed  a  distinct  share  in  the  work.  In 
these  facts  we  have  a  natural  law  for  preserva- 
tion of  species,  discovering  in  a  very  striking 
manner  the  dependence  of  lower  organism 
on  higher.  As  Mr.  Darwin  has  said,  —  "  The 
meaning  of  these  facts  is  clear."  Referring 
to  the  examples  in  which  the  insects  have  to 
bore  holes  in  order  to  reach  the  honey,  where 
there  is  need  for  time  to  allow  for  the  harden- 
ing of  the  viscid  matter,  he  has  used  the  fol- 
lowing words  which  are  most  fitly  applied, — 
"If  this  double  relation  is  accidental,  it  is  a 
fortunate  accident  for  the  plants;  but  I  can 
not  believe  it  to  be  so,  and  it  appears  to  me 
one  of  the  most  wonderful  cases  of  adaptation 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  181 

which  has  ever  been  recorded."  *  It  is  most 
obviously  true,  as  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  said, 
that  "  neither  plants  nor  insects  would  be 
what  they  are,  but  for  the  influence  which 
each  has  exercised  on  the  other."  f  In  view 
of  the  facts  here  very  briefly  described  it  will 
generally  be  allowed  that  Mr.  Darwin's  ex- 
pectation from  the  study  of  orchids  will  be 
verified,  — "  An  examination  of  their  many 
beautiful  contrivances  will  exalt  the  whole 
vegetable  kingdom  in  most  persons'  estima- 
tion."! We  have  enough  before  us  to  enable 
us  to  appreciate  our  author's  feeling  when 
he  says,  "Hardly  any  fact  has  struck  me  so 
much  as  the  endless  diversities  of  structure, — 
the  prodigality  of  resources  for  gaining  the 
very  same  end."  §  Again  when  giving  us  his 
prevailing  impression  he  says, — "  The  more  I 
study  nature,  the  more  I  become  impressed 
with  ever-increasing  force,  that  the  contriv- 
ances and  beautiful  adaptations,  slowly  ac- 
quired through  each  part  occasionally  vary- 
ing in  a  slight  degree,  but  in  many  ways,  with 
the  preservation  of  those  variations  which  were 
beneficial  to  the  organism  under  complex  and 

*  Fertilization,  p.  44.  f  Scientific  Lectures,  p.  31. 

J  Fertilization,  p.  2.  §  Ib.  p.  284. 


182  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

ever  varying  conditions  of  life,  transcend  in 
an  incomparable  manner  the  contrivances  and 
adaptations  which  the  most  fertile  imagination 
of  man  could  invent.77  * 

In  preparing  the  present  summary  of  re- 
cent advances  in  this  department  of  natural 
history,  I  have  resorted  freely  to  quotation, 
because  of  the  obvious  rule,  that  it  is  better 
for  scientific  interest,  for  proper  understand- 
ing, and  for  regulation  of  all  subsequent  rea- 
soning on  the  facts,  that  we  have  the  obser- 
vations presented  as  nearly  as  possible  by  those 
who  made  them,  and  that  we  have  more  gen- 
eral inferences  in  the  very  words  of  those 
whose  minds  have  been  filled  and  swayed  by 
impressions  made  in  the  field  of  observation 
itself.  In  now  proceeding  to  consider  the 
bearing  of  these  advances  on  religious  thought, 
I  shall  keep  as  far  as  possible  by  the  same 
rule,  desiring  that  science  may  interpret  it- 
self, and  translate  its  own  special  conclusions 
into  their  fit  place  within  a  scheme  of  the  uni- 
verse. And  whatever  there  may  be  here  of 
material  for  detailed  inference,  it  will  be  taken 
by  religious  men  as  abundantly  clear,  that 
science  in  slowly  unfolding  to  general  view 

*  rertilizai'um.  p.  285. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  183 

these  secrets  of  nature,  renders  a  lasting  and 
most  valuable  service  to  religion.  Our  re- 
ligious convictions  and  emotions  rest  on  a 
wider  intellectual  basis  according  to  the  ful- 
ness with  which  we  understand  the  marvels 
of  adaptation  and  contrivance  which  lie  cov- 
ered from  ordinary  observation  under  the  at- 
tractive surface  of  nature. 

Altogether  beyond  such  a  general  admission 
as  this,  however,  it  must  be  obvious  that  in 
the  mass  of  deeply  interesting  material  now 
before  us,  there  lies  a  considerable  number  of 
truths  needing  to  be  gathered  into  generalized 
form,  bearing  upon  the  laws  of  nature  apply- 
ing to  living  organism.  As  records  of  details 
are  extended  before  us,  the  marvels  of  struct- 
ure are  obvious.  The  multifarious  contriv- 
ances become  quite  startling,  until  we  are 
ready  to  lose  our  reckoning  in  the  very  mul- 
tiplicity of  facts  narrated.  In  order  to  make 
sure  of  general  result,  we  need  to  draw  off 
somewhat  from  details, — to  be  content  even 
to  lose  sight  of  many  of  them, — in  order  to 
gain  a  position,  sufficiently  removed  for  a 
sight  of  general  relations.  In  attempting  this 
it  is  clear  that  there  are  certain  truths  bearing 
on  the  preservation  and  development  of  spe- 


184  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

cies  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  an  analo- 
gous set  of  truths  as  to  the  animal  kingdom, 
and  above  these,  possibly  still  more  important 
for  general  appreciation  of  the  universe  as  a 
whole,  a  body  of  truth  as  to  the  relations  of 
plants  and  animals. 

As  to  the  first  of  these,  it  seems  obvious 
that  within  the  single  field  of  observation  pre- 
sented by  orchids, — comparatively  narrow, 
in  view  of  the  wide  domain  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  and  yet  astonishingly  extensive,  on 
account  of  the  richness  of  detail, — there  is 
a  large  body  of  evidence  to  support  the  theory 
of  origin  of  species  by  selection  and  adapta- 
tion. Whether  all  the  orchideae  now  found 
in  existence  have  sprung  from  one  order  of 
plant,  or  from  several,  the  testimony  appears 
ample  to  support  at  least  the  following  con- 
clusion as  presented  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Dar- 
win, "  that  the  now  wonderfully  changed 
structure  of  the  flower  is  due  to  a  long 
course  of  slow  modification, — each  modifica- 
tion having  been  preserved  which  was  useful 
to  the  plant,  during  the  incessant  changes  to 
which  the  organic  and  inorganic  world  has 
been  exposed.77  * 

*  Fertilization,  p.  246. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  185 

By  a  line  of  inference  exactly  similar,  a  like 
conclusion  must  be  reached  as  to  insect  life. 
For,  important  as  the  observations  are,  bear- 
ing on  the  transference  of  pollen  from  the 
place  where  it  is  generated  to  the  place  where 
it  is  wanted,  we  must  notice  that  the  whole 
work  is  done  in  consequence  of  search  for 
honey  by  flies,  moths,  ants,  wasps,  and  bees. 
It  naturally  follows  that  all  these  insects  have 
been  going  through  some  measure  of  adapta- 
tion, as  well  as  the  plants.  The  same  law 
must  have  been  operating  in  their  history 
while  prosecuting  the  unceasing  search  for 
food.  It  may  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  fill 
up  the  line  of  progress,  or  trace  the  causes  in 
operation,  which  could  favor  the  conclusion 
that  all  the  insects  named  have  sprung  from 
a  common  stock.  Still  more  perplexing  might 
it  be  to  maintain  the  argument  that  these  very 
insects  have  sprung  according  to  a  sure  law 
of  descent,  from  vegetable  life  itself.  But 
there  is  ample  evidence  to  warrant  the  in- 
ference that  in  length  of  proboscis,  formation 
of  limbs,  and  other  features  in  their  struct- 
ure, modifications  have  resulted  from  the 
struggle  needful  to  reach  the  nectar  secreted 
in  the  flowers. 


18G  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

But  it  is  clearly  impossible  to  stop  here  in 
our  inferences.  There  is  interdependence  of 
lower  and  higher  organisms,  to  which  a  dis- 
tinct place  needs  to  be  assigned  in  our  theory 
of  the  universe.  Even  if  it  be  granted,  as  it 
readily  will  be  by  those  who  have  studied  the 
results  of  recent  research,  that  there  is  a  vast 
body  of  evidence  to  prove  that  there  is  de- 
velopment of  species  by  adaptation  and  selec- 
tion, it  is  equally  evident  that  this  is  not  the 
only  law  affecting  the  existence  of  different 
orders  of  organized  beings.  Just  as  clear  as 
it  is  that  pollen  and  seed  are  both  required  to 
provide  for  the  continuance  of  plant  life,  so 
clear  is  it  that  plants  are  needed  to  support 
insects,  and  insects  to  propagate  plants.  Pro- 
ceeding on  the  same  lines  of  reasoning  as 
have  been  already  employed,  we  must  inquire 
how  this  interdependence  is  to  be  accounted 
for  under  natural  law  ?  The  struggle  for  ex- 
istence is  clearly  performing  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  plants,  and  also 
of  animals;  and  so  long  as  we  regard  these 
two  orders  singly,  it  seems  obvious  how 
changes  in  structure  may  be  accounted  for; 
but  observations  have  become  so  interlaced, 
that  a  new  problem  has  been  raised  in  con- 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  187 

nection  with  facts  manifestly  abating  the 
struggle  for  existence.  In  view  of  this  prob- 
lem Dr.  Hooker  has  said, — "The  adjustment 
of  the  parts  of  the  flower  to  the  form  and 
habits  of  the  insect  or  bird,  and  of  these  to 
the  flower,  is  so  accurate,  that  it  is  in  vain 
to  speculate  whether  the  plant  was  adapted 
to  feed  the  animal,  or  the  animal  adapted  to 
fertilize  the  plant."*  This  suggestion  of  the 
needlessness  of  speculation  is  natural  from  a 
scientific  point  of  view,  and  we  may  do  well 
to  remember  the  warnings  against  risks  at- 
tending the  search  for  final  causes,  which 
have  been  sounded  from  the  days  of  Spinoza 
to  the  present  time;  but  there  is  a  problem 
here  which  science  can  not  leave  in  abeyance. 
The  facts  are  undoubted,  and  the  natural 
causes  must  be  sought.  The  parts  of  the 
flowers  are  adapted  to  the  forms  and  habits 
of  the  insects;  the  insects  are  adapted  to  the 
work  of  fertilizing  the  plants;  the  question  is, 
How  are  these  two  things  secured  ?  The  in- 
quiry which  has  awakened  general  interest  as 
to  the  development  of  species  in  the  history 
of  distinct  orders  such  as  orchids,  insects,  pig- 

*  Botany,  (Science  Primers)  by  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker,  C.B.,  P.K.S., 
p.  79. 


188  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

eons,  and  dogs,  must  strive  to  complete  its 
work,  by  pressing  on  to  this  more  compli- 
cated question  concerning  the  adaptation  of 
distinct  organisms  to  influence  and  aid  each 
other  in  the  work  of  development.  In  what 
way  science  may  deal  with  this  question,  and 
how  far  it  may  be  able  to  advance  in  the 
search  for  an  answer,  it  may  be  difficult  to 
decide.  For  it  is  much  easier  to  indicate  the 
logical  necessity  for  an  advance,  than  to  say 
in  what  manner  the  advance  is  to  be  accom- 
plished. The  one  is  a  simple  question  of  log- 
ical  requirement;  the  other  must  be  a  matter 
of  continued  observation,  and  scientific  infer- 
ence. Whether  science  may  yet  discover  an 
answer;  or  whether  it  may  prove  true  at  this 
point,  as  at  other  points  already  mentioned, 
that  science  has  here  reached  clear  marks  of 
its  own  limits,  must  be  left  to  the  future,  to 
be  determined  by  those  devoted  to  scientific 
research.  As  long,  however,  as  this  question 
of  interdependence  remains  without  a  scien- 
tific explanation,  it  must  be  obvious  that 
there  are  important  facts  which  seem  to  im- 
ply some  modification  of  the  theory  of  de- 
scent, or  evolution  of  species  by  means  of 
selection,  under  the  severe  struggle  for  exist- 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  189 

ence.  Or,  to  put  it  from  another  point  of 
view,  nature  has  marvellously  provided  for 
mitigation  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  by 
contrivances  providing  both  for  vegetable  and 
animal  life;  therefore  the  theory  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  life  which  depends  chiefly 
on  the  struggle  for  existence  must  be  adjusted 
to  allow  for  a  theory  of  the  effects  arising  from 
the  natural  provision  for  obviating  the  strug- 
gle, and  providing  for  a  large  increase  of  life. 

Quite  beyond  this,  as  a  matter  entirely  dis- 
tinct, is  the  question  as  to  the  primordial 
forms  of  existence  in  the  history  of  plants 
and  insects.  As  to  this,  science  may  be  able 
to  give  very  little  testimony,  as  it  is  a  question 
of  the  remote  past,  on  which  present  facts 
may  afford  little  evidence.  Still,  beyond  these 
primordial  forms,  in  a  region  which  science 
can  not  enter,  there  lies  the  question  of  origin, 
of  actual  beginning,  creation  of  life,  as  to  the 
reality  of  which  science  can  speak  only  indi- 
rectly by  discovery  of  its  own  limits,  in  the 
terms  of  its  ultimatum,  nature  has  provided 
that  such  and  such  things  shall  be. 

Before  leaving  the  department  of  insect  life, 
there  is  a  collateral  and  complementary  series 
of  observations,  bearing  upon  the  nature  and 


190  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

activity  of  ANTS,  which  deserves  attention. 
The  ants  are  a  race  of  insects  as  diligently  in- 
dustrious as  the  bees,  like  them  also  fond  of 
honey  and  of  all  sweet  substances;  but  unlike 
them  ready  to  devour  other  insects.  Along 
with  the  industry  of  the  bee,  they  have  pre- 
datory tendencies,  leading  them  into  conflict 
with  other  races,  or  even  involving  different 
orders  of  their  own  race  in  warfare.  It  is  a 
curious  fact,  in  this  connection,  that  many  of 
the  flowering  plants  have  contrivances  which 
guard  them  from  the  approach  of  ants.  Creep- 
ing insects  find  the  way  barred  against  them 
while  the  flying  insect  at  once  and  easily 
reaches  the  stores  of  honey,  not  knowing  any 
thing  of  the  difficulties  in  the  path  of  the  less 
favored  rival.  Spikes  grow  with  their  points 
in  a  downward  direction,  against  which  no 
creeping  insect  can  make  way;  waxy  or  glu- 
tinous matter  is  spread  over  the  leaves,  which 
insects  shun  as  a  trap;  and  there  are  velvety 
flexible  leaves  from  the  edge  of  which  the  in- 
sect easily  slips  off.  Special  attention  has 
been  turned  to  this  field  of  research  by  Ker- 
ner,*  an  interesting  outline  of  the  results  of 

*  Flowers  and  thdr  Unbidden  Quests,  by  Prof.  Kerner.  Univer- 
Bity  of  Innsbruck. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  191 

his  observations  being  given  by  Sir  John 
Lubbock.*  The  conclusion  reached  as  to  the 
utility  of  these  contrivances  for  exclusion  of 
creeping  insects,  is  that  they  perform  an  aux- 
iliary part  in  the  general  plan  for  fertilization 
which  has  been  described.  To  allow  the  store 
of  honey  to  go  to  the  ants  would  be  merely  to 
feed  them  without  any  equivalent  advantage 
to  the  flowers.  To  diminish  the  supply  in  this 
way,  might  cause  the  bees  to  abandon  many 
flowers,  and  so  greatly  diminish  fertilization. 
This  would  ultimately  lead  to  short  supplies, 
and  probable  extinction  of  several  orders  of 
plants  and  animals,  and  accordingly  these  con- 
trivances to  hinder  the  access  of  ants,  must  be 
added  to  those  for  facilitating  the  approach 
of  bees,  and  other  flying  insects,  affording 
further  evidence  of  the  adjustment  of  rival 
interests  involved  in  the  relations  of  the  veg- 
etable and  animal  kingdoms.  The  serried 
spikes  are  a  phalanx  of  bayonets  planted  for 
resistance  of  an  advancing  foe. 

Contemplating  now  the  ants  as  in  some  re- 
spects an  excluded  race,  which  with  a  large 
share  of  pugnacity  can  not  find  a  basis  of  op 
erations  for  contending  against  the  bees,  we 

*  Scientific  Lectures,  p.  36. 


192  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

have  to  turn  attention  briefly  on  their  modes 
of  life.  The  industry  of  the  ant  is  proverbial, 
and  can  not  fail  to  arrest  the  attention  of  any 
one  who  spends  a  few  minutes  before  an 
ant-hill.  But  carefully  recorded  observations 
prove  it  to  be  much  greater  than  could  have 
been  imagined.  Sir  John  Lubbock  has  ren- 
dered special  service  here  by  carefully  noting 
the  time  occupied,  as  well  as  the  amount  of 
work  done,  thus  preserving  a  series  of  obser- 
vations exceedingly  suggestive  in  many  ways, 
and  having  an  important  bearing  on  a  consid- 
erable number  of  difficult  questions  connected 
with  the  relative  powers  of  lower  and  higher 
orders  of  life.  A  similar  service  has  been 
rendered  in  America  in  the  work  of  the  Rev. 
H.  C.  McCook  of  Philadelphia,  on  The  Nat- 
ural History  of  the  Agricultural  Ant  of  Texas, 
— a  book  recording  careful  and  most  impor- 
tant observations,  adding  much  to  the  stores 
of  knowledge  concerning  ants.* 

The  work  of  the  ants  is  directed  mainly  to 
the  two  great  objects  of  animal  life,  procuring 
food,  and  caring  for  the  young,  to  which  falls 
to  be  added,  the  repelling  of  attacks  upon 
their  nests,  or  removal  of  any  thing  obnox- 
ious. They  destroy  great  numbers  of  smaller 

*  See  Appendix  X. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  193 

insects,  bearing  them  to  their  nests  for  con- 
sumption, besides  going  off  in  search  of  honey 
which  may  be  within  reach,  and  not  guarded 
with  spikes.  This  mode  of  providing  implies 
a  very  busy  life,  and  they  do  not  as  a  rule 
grudge  work.  Besides  procuring  supplies, 
however,  there  is  a  large  amount  of  labor  in 
the  care  bestowed  upon  their  young.  With- 
out attempting  to  distinguish  various  orders, 
of  which  "more  than  seven  hundred  kinds 
are  known,"*  a  general  description  of  their 
young  will  suffice.  In  the  earliest  stage  of 
their  existence,  the  larvae  are  small  conical 
shaped  grubs,  without  power  of  movement. 
In  this  state  they  are  fed,  carried  about  from 
place  to  place  as  if  their  seniors  were  seeking 
change  of  air  and  temperature  for  them;  and 
in  process  of  these  removals  and  arrange- 
ments, they  are  often  grouped  together  in 
separate  companies,  and  in  exact  order  ac- 
cording to  their  size.  In  their  next  stage, 
they  become  pupae,  sometimes  quite  exposed, 
in  other  cases  covered  with  a  thin  silken  cov- 
ering. From  this,  they  pass  into  the  mature 
state  as  perfect  insects,  and  in  process  of 
this  transition  older  ants  render  assistance 
by  way  of  aiding  the  transition,  "  carefully 

*  See  Appendix  VUL 


194  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

unfolding  their  legs  and  smoothing  out  their 
wings. " 

In  the  ant  nest  there  is  a  singular  distinc- 
tion of  orders  which  prevents  us  speaking  of 
the  parent  ants  as  doing  all  this  work  for  the 
young.  The  great  majority  in  every  nest  are 
neuters,  not  producing  young;  these  are  the 
workers,  and  they  are  destitute  of  wings. 
The  smaller  numbers  only  are  the  males  and 
females  producing  the  young.  The  workers, 
shorn  of  wings,  and  entrusted  with  all  that 
is  required  in  household  and  out-door  duties, 
labor  assiduously.  These  neuter  ants  have 
occasioned  special  perplexity  to  Mr.  Darwin 
as  bearing  on  the  theory  of  evolution,  a  diffi- 
culty which  is  seriously  increased  by  the  fact 
that  in  some  cases  they  "differ  from  each 
other,  sometimes  to  an  almost  incredible  de- 
gree, and  are  thus  divided  into  two  or  even 
three  castes/7  and  these  "  do  not  commonly 
graduate  into  each  other,"  but  are  "as  dis- 
tinct from  each  other  as  any  two  species."* 
Without  following  Mr.  Darwin  through  his 
reasoning  as  to  the  adaptation  of  neuters  for 
their  task  in  life,  it  may  be  well  to  quote  his 
words  towards  its  close,  where  he  says,  "  I 

*  Origin  of  Species,  6th  ed.  p.  230. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  195 

must  confess,  that,  with  all  my  faith  in  nat- 
ural selection,  I  should  never  have  anticipated 
that  this  principle  could  have  been  efficient 
in  so  high  a  degree,  had  not  the  case  of  these 
neuter  insects  led  me  to  this  conclusion."* 
Besides  the  fact  that  these  neuters  are  the 
workers,  there  is  an  additional  circumstance, 
established  by  Mr.  Frederick  Smith  by  ob- 
servations in  England,  confirmed  by  the 
observations  of  Pierre  Huber  in  Switzer- 
land, and  afterwards  verified  in  the  clearest 
way  by  Mr.  Darwin,  that  there  is  a  species  of 
ant  (formica  sanguined)  which  captures  slaves 
of  a  weaker  order,  making  war  against  the 
weaker  race,  carrying  off  their  young,  rear- 
ing them  within  their  own  nests,  and  train- 
ing them  to  serve.  Mr.  Darwin  was  himself 
sceptical  of  such  a  statement,  but  gives  an  in- 
teresting narrative  of  distinct  observations  by 
which  it  was  confirmed. 

The  amount  of  labor  undertaken  by  the 
workers  from  an  ants'  nest,  may  be  judged  by 
one  or  two  extracts  from  the  records  of  Sir 
John  Lubbock.  He  says,  "I  once  watched 
an  ant  from  six  in  the  morning,  and  she 
worked  without  intermission  till  a  quarter 

*  Origin  of  Species,  6th  ed.  p.  233. 


196  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

to  ten  at  night,"  and  in  that  time  she  had 
carried  one  hundred  and  eighty-seven  larvae 
into  the  nest.*  There  is  evidence  not  only  of 
cooperation,  but  of  division  of  labor  among 
the  workers.  The  observations  of  Mr.  Forel 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  "  very  young  ants 
devote  themselves  at  first  to  the  care  of  the 
larvae  and  pupae,  and  that  they  do  not  take 
share  in  the  defence  of  the  nest  or  other  out- 
of-door  work,  until  they  are  some  days  old."  f 
By  a  distinct  set  of  observations,  watching  all 
ants  that  came  and  went  from  the  nest,  and 
laying  up  in  captivity  some  of  the  number, 
Mr.  Lubbock  came  to  the  conclusion  "that  cer- 
tain ants  are  told  off  as  foragers.'7  J  And  in 
the  winter  season,  when  in  the  case  of  some 
orders  little  food  is  required,  a  few  only  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  nest  come  and  go,  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying  in  supplies.  This  makes 
observation  much  more  easy  at  that  season, 
rendering  it  possible  to  number  and  identify 
individual  workers.  The  results  as  applicable 
to  one  of  the  nests  are  given  in  the  following 
sentences.  "From  the  1st  of  November  to  the 
5th  of  January,  with  two  or  three  casual  ex- 
ceptions, the  whole  of  the  supplies  were  car- 

*  Sclent.  Lects.  p.  73.  f  #>•  P-  78.  J  Ib.  p.  135. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  197 

ried  in  by  three  ants,  one  of  whom,  however, 
did  comparatively  little.  The  other  two  were 
imprisoned,  and  then,  but  not  till  then,  a  fresh 
ant  appeared  on  the  scene.  She  carried  in  the 
food  for  a  week,  and  then  she  being  impris- 
oned, two  others  undertook  the  task."  * 

One  consideration  more  bearing  upon  ob- 
taining supplies  deserves  to  be  recorded  as 
altogether  singular.  Some  species  of  ants 
watch  over  a  distinct  order  of  insects,  the 
aphides,  which  exude  a  sweet  fluid,  using  them 
exactly  as  we  do  cows  for  obtaining  supplies 
of  milk.  The  ant  comes  up  to  the  aphis, 
gently  strokes  it  with  her  feelers,  forthwith 
the  aphis  gives  forth  its  supply  of  honey,  which 
the  ant  drinks  up  and  departs.  The  facts 
were  observed  by  Pierre  Huber,  and  verified 
by  Mr.  Darwin.  This  verification  was  so  in- 
teresting, that  I  give  the  narrative  in  a  slightly 
condensed  form.  Mr.  Darwin  says, — "  I  re- 
moved all  the  ants  from  a  group  of  about  a 
dozen  aphides  on  a  dock-plant,  and  prevented 
their  attendance  during  several  hours."  Mr. 
Darwin  tried  in  vain  by  stroking  the  aphides 
with  a  hair,  in  imitation  of  the  play  of  the  feel- 
ers of  the  ants,  to  induce  them  to  give  up  the 

*  Scientific  Lectures,  p.  135. 


198  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

honey.  "Afterwards,"  he  says,  "I  allowed 
an  ant  to  visit  them,  and  it  immediately  seemed, 
by  its  eager  way  of  running  about,  to  be  well 
aware  what  a  rich  flock  it  had  discovered;  it 
then  began  to  play  with  its  antennae  on  the 
abdomen  first  of  one  aphis  and  then  of  an- 
other; and  each,  as  soon  as  it  felt  the  antennae, 
immediately  lifted  up  its  abdomen  and  ex- 
creted a  limpid  drop  of  sweet  juice,  which  was 
eagerly  devoured  by  the  ant."*  So  the  ants 
have  their  "  cows  "  and  milk  them. 

To  attempt  any  account  of  the  ants  of 
tropical  countries,  where  ants  are  most  nu- 
merous, swarming  in  the  regions  they  inhabit, 
and  marching  in  hosts,  would  occupy  too  much 
space.  I  give,  therefore,  only  a  single  refer- 
ence extracted  from  the  testimony  of  Mr. 
Savage  concerning  the  driver  ant  of  Western 
Africa  (Anomma  Arcens),  so  called  because  of 
the  success  with  which  it  drives  every  thing 
before  it.  Mr.  Savage  annoyed  by  the  prox- 
imity of  a  large  settlement,  discovered  its 
quarters  in  some  decaying  granite.  Kindling 
a  fire  around  it,  he  believed  he  had  succeeded 
in  disposing  of  that  settlement.  Two  days 
after,  he  went  back  to  the  spot,  and  instead 

*  Origin  qf  Species  6th  ed  p.  207, 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  199 

of  desolation  and  death,  he  found  "a  tree  at  a 
short  distance,  about  eighteen  inches  in  diam- 
eter, to  the  height  of  four  feet  from  the  ground, 
with  the  adjacent  plants  and  earth  perfectly 
black  with  them."  The  most  striking  thing, 
however,  was  that  the  ants  had  made  fes- 
toons from  the  lower  branches  to  the  ground, 
formed  in  the  following  manner,  as  witnessed 
by  Mr.  Savage:  "  ant  after  ant  coming  down 
from  above,  extending  their  long  limbs,  and 
opening  wide  their  jaws,  gradually  lengthen- 
ing out  the  living  chain "  until  first  it  was 
swaying  to  and  fro,  and  ultimately  fastened 
to  the  ground,  when  "others  were  ascending 
and  descending  upon  them,  thus  holding  free 
and  ready  communication  with  the  lower  and 
upper  portions  of  this  dense  mass."  In  this 
same  manner  these  ants  provide  for  the  cross- 
ing of  water  when  on  the  march.  "They 
make  a  line  or  chain  of  one  another,  gradu- 
ally extending  themselves  by  numbers  across 
till  the  opposite  side  is  reached."  *  This  is 
exactly  similar  to  the  manner  in  which  some 
monkeys  are  known  to  construct  a  natural 
bridge,  only  that  the  monkeys  have  the  ad- 

*  Museum  of  Natural  History  edited  by  Bichardson,  Dallas,  Gob- 
bold,  Baird,  and  White,  vol.  ii  p.  184. 


200  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

vantage  of  greater  size  and  muscular  strength, 
as  well  as  prehensile  power  by  the  use  of  their 
tails.  With  such  characteristics  as  have  been 
briefly  described,  there  is  little  wonder  that 
a  high  place  in  the  scale  of  intelligence  has 
been  claimed  for  these  small  insects.  Sir  John 
Lubbock,  who  has  so  patiently  conducted  his 
observations  as  to  their  modes  of  life,  has 
stated  this  in  the  following  manner,— "  The 
anthropoid  apes  no  doubt  approach  more  to 
man  in  bodily  structure  than  do  any  other 
animals;  but  when  we  consider  the  habits  of 
ants,  their  social  organization,  their  large  com- 
munities, elaborate  habitations,  their  roadways, 
their  possession  of  domestic  animals,  and  even 
in  some  cases  of  slaves,  it  must  be  admitted 
that  they  have  a  fair  claim  to  rank  next  to 
man  in  the  scale  of  intelligence."  *  Whether, 
even  with  all  this  evidence,  we  may  be  able  to 
rank  the  ants  quite  as  high  as  Lubbock  here 
suggests,  may  be  open  to  question.  There 
may,  for  example,  be  reasonable  debate  wheth- 
er the  dog  does  not  present  still  higher  signs 
of  intelligence,  but  it  says  a  great  deal  for  the 
ants  that  debate  in  the  case  should  be  pos- 
sible. A  question  of  very  great  scientific  im- 

*  Sclent.  Lects.  p.  68. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  201 

portance  is  here  raised,  affecting  the  whole 
scheme  of  interpretation  applicable  to  animal 
life,  as  connected  with  development  of  brain. 

Without  attempting  to  enter  upon  the  ar- 
gument yet  to  be  conducted  through  the 
wider  relations  concerned,  it  must  be  ob- 
vious that  the  facts  bearing  on  insect  life 
must  erelong  have  a  larger  share  than  they 
have  yet  had  in  influencing  our  generaliza- 
tions. By  reference  to  these,  it  becomes  ap- 
parent, that  anatomical  structure  is  not  in 
itself  an  adequate  guide  in  determining  com- 
parative importance  on  the  scale  of  organic 
existence;  and,  what  is  still  more  startling, 
that  even  comparative  brain  structure  can 
not  be  taken  as  the  sole  test  of  the  meas- 
ure of  intelligence  belonging  to  animals.  The 
whole  orders  of  ants,  taken  collectively,  must 
be  regarded  as  presenting  quite  exceptional 
difficulties,  not  only  for  a  theory  of  evolution 
regarded  as  an  all-embracing  science  of  life; 
but  also  for  that  theory  of  intelligence  which 
seeks  to  account  for  diversities  of  power  by 
the  comparative  complexity  of  brain  structure. 

Passing  from  more  detailed  discussion,  it  is 
needful  to  observe  how  wide  and  valuable  are 
the  results  of  these  researches  concerning  the 


202  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

relation  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  with  lower 
orders  of  animals.  Facts  now  recorded  in  mul- 
titudes of  scientific  journals,  and  more  elabo- 
rate treatises,  illustrate  wonderful  minuteness 
of  contrivance  and  completeness  of  adaptation 
in  the  works  of  nature,  giving  to  the  range 
of  knowledge  possessed  only  a  century  ago  an 
aspect  of  insignificance.  .  What  the  microscope 
has  done  by  enlarging  the  range  of  human 
vision,  subdivision  of  labor  among  scientific 
inquirers,  and  proportionate  concentration, 
have  done,  in  the  way  of  embracing  the  vast 
and  complicated  field  of  observation  lying 
open  to  all  eyes.  The  results  exalt  to  a 
greatly  higher  place  in  our  appreciation  the 
evidence  of  design  in  the  world.  The  conse- 
quence is  that  while  the  line  of  thought  fol- 
lowed by  Paley,  in  what  he  designated  Nat- 
ural Theology,  has  become  a  thousand-fold 
more  interesting,  the  familiar  and  now  almost 
antiquated  illustration  of  the  watch,  taken  as 
a  model  of  human  design,  by  the  comparative 
simplicity  of  its  adjustments,  seems  strangely 
inadequate  to  represent  even  in  the  most  tem- 
porary form,  a  minuteness  of  design  quite 
overwhelming  to  the  human  mind  in  its  at- 
tempts to  bring  it  within  a  uniform  scheme. 


RELATIONS   OF  ORGANISMS.  203 

Whether  all  this  was  provided  for  .by  mani- 
fold creative  acts,  or  by  development  from  a 
few  primordial  forms,  does  not  affect  the  ar- 
gument; the  latter  suggestion  only  greatly  in- 
creases its  force.  To  those  who  are  swayed 
only  by  an  intellectual  interest,  the  facts  of 
vegetable  and  insect  life  must  be  full  of  sig- 
nificance, suggestive  of  far-reaching  reflection. 
But  to  no  body  of  men  can  these  results  of 
scientific  research  be  so  attractive  as  to  those 
who  require  for  all  nature  a  supernatural 
explanation. 


LECTURE    VI. 

HIGHER  ORGANISMS.—  RESEMBLANCES  AND 
CONTRASTS.—  BRAIN  STRUCTURE. 


stage  of  investigation  now  reached 
requires  us  to  consider  recent  advances 
in  our  knowledge  of  more  complicated  organ- 
isms. This  leads  into  the  line  of  observation 
disclosing  steadily  advancing  complexity  of 
structure,  and  brings  us  into  contact  with  the 
claim  that  man  be  included  within  the  area 
of  scientific  inquiry,  and  regarded  as  a  more 
fully  organized  life  to  which  lower  orders  are 
not  only  pointing,  but  actually  tending. 

As  to  this  last  claim,  about  which  more 
must  be  said  as  we  approach  the  close  of 
these  investigations,  it  may  be  remarked  by 
way  of  preliminary,  that  as  man  belongs  to 
nature,  all  the  characteristics  of  his  life  must 
come  within  the  area  of  scientific  inquiry,  and 
indeed  the  test  of  any  theory  of  existence 
which  may  be  offered,  will  be  found  in  the 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  205 

measure  of  success  with  which  it  explains  our 
own  nature.  That  man  stands  highest  in  the 
scale  of  organism  belonging  to  this  world  ad- 
mits of  no  doubt,  therefore  the  explanation 
of  human  nature  may  be  regarded  as  the  su- 
preme effort  of  science.  Around  this  sub- 
ject, however,  serious  differences  have  arisen, 
among  scientific  men,  but  these  differences  do 
not  concern  the  very  simple  question  whether 
all  that  belongs  to  nature  comes  within  the 
range  of  the  science  of  nature.  This  is  grant- 
ed by  all,  whether  there  be  a  preference  for 
including  all  such  inquiry  under  the  single 
name  of  science,  or  for  distinguishing  between 
physical  science  and  mental  philosophy.  This 
is  simply  a  matter  of  defining  terms,  and  tra- 
cing the  boundaries  of  recognized  departments 
of  inquiry.  But  whether  a  continued  study 
of  organism  will  conduct  us  to  an  adequate 
understanding  of  human  nature,  must  be  a 
matter  of  observation  and  inference.  If  it 
do,  science  has  completed  its  work.  If  it  do 
not,  there  remains  a  still  higher  question,  how 
shall  we  account  for  features  of  life  for  which 
organism  affords  no  scientific  explanation  ? 
The  whole  field  is  certainly  free  to  science, 
and  the  whole  task  which  this  immense  field 


206  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

of  research  imposes  must  be  undertaken,  and 
persistently  prosecuted  to  a  rational  issue. 

Entering  now,  therefore,  on  the  contempla- 
tion of  animal  life,  regarded  as  a  higher  order, 
distinguishable  from  vegetable  life,  we  have 
the  outstanding  characteristics  of  sensibility 
and  locomotion.  Whether  there  is  a  distinct 
line  of  demarcation  between  vegetable  and 
animal  does  not  require  special  attention,  for 
no  matter  of  controversy  on  this  point  can 
delay  procedure.  There  is,  as  already  re- 
marked, in  the  vegetable  kingdom  a  singular 
approximation  towards  animal  life,  in  so  far 
as  we  have  evidence  of  sensibility  to  touch 
among  the  plants,  to  a  degree  which  appears 
wonderful  chiefly  by  contrast  with  the  com- 
mon characteristics  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

On  the  other  hand,  sensibility  to  influences 
operating  from  without  is  a  common  feature 
of  animal  life.  Even  the  very  lowest  orders 
of  animals  are  sensitive  to  touch,  and  as  this 
form  of  experience  is  closely  connected  with 
power  of  locomotion,  all  animals  have  the 
conditions  of  their  life  largely  affected  by  in- 
terference with  their  own  movements,  or  re- 
sistance offered,  whether  by  objects  lying  in 
their  way,  or  by  some  force  restraining  their 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  207 

progress,  or  causing  movement  in  an  oppo- 
site direction.  Now  these  two  characteris- 
tics— sensibility  to  impression  from  without, 
and  movement  caused  by  an  exercise  of  en- 
ergy from  within  the  organism  itself — are  both 
provided  for  by  means  of  the  nerve  system 
belonging  to  the  animal.  This  nerve  system 
varies  in  the  number  and  complexity  of  its 
arrangements,  according  to  the  complexity 
of  the  organism  with  which  it  is  associated. 
As,  therefore,  we  rise  in  the  scale,  passing 
from  the  soft  pulpy  form  of  the  lowest  orders, 
to  those  formed  in  segments  or  rings,  next 
to  those  with  distinct  portions  of  organism 
fulfilling  separate  functions,  as  in  insect  life, 
with  head,  body,  and  legs;  and  next  pass  up 
to  the  vertebrates,  with  back-bone  and  skel- 
eton, on  which  is  built  up  a  more  or  less  com- 
plicated muscular  system,  we  find  a  nerve 
system,  growing  in  complexity  along  with  the 
appearance  of  different  organs  of  the  body. 
And  in  all  cases,  this  system  fulfils  these  two 
functions — sensibility  to  touch,  and  move- 
ment of  the  body.  These  two  are  provided 
for  by  distinct  lines  or  nerve  fibres;  and  in 
all  cases,  these  two  sets  are  combined  in  a 
centre,  thereby  securing  that  the  two  sets 


208  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

be  cooperative,  unitedly  contributing  to  the 
management  of  the  living  organism.  This 
appears  even  if  we  take  for  illustration  an  or- 
ganism so  low  as  the  ascidian  mottusk,  which 
floats  in  the  water  as  if  it  were  a  sack  drawn 
together  towards  the  top,  bulging  out  below; 
and  which  is  nourished  simply  by  the  passing 
of  a  current  of  water  in  at  the  mouth,  and 
out  at  a  vent  towards  the  lower  end  of  the 
sac.  A  series  of  nerve  lines  comes  from  the 
mouth;  a  distinct  ramification  spreads  over 
the  lower  portion  of  the  sac;  and  these  two 
are  united  in  a  single  knot  or  ganglion,  a 
little  above  the  vent.  By  these  contrivances, 
this  little  body,  though  for  the  most  part  sta- 
tionary, is  sensitive  to  the  approach  of  any 
thing  injurious,  and  by  contraction  of  its  mass 
expels  the  water  with  considerable  force, 
driving  the  injurious  matter  to  a  distance. 
This  combination  of  the  two  sets  of  nerves 
appears  more  strikingly  in  such  an  animal 
as  the  centipede,  along  whose  body  are  suc- 
cessive groups  of  nerves,  combined  in  reg- 
ular order  in  a  series  of  knots,  and  united 
longitudinally  by  connecting  threads,  attach- 
ing the  successive  knots.  The  same  plan  is 
carried  up  into  a  more  articulated  form  in 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS. 

the  case  of  the  winged  insect,  with  head,  an- 
tennae or  feelers  projecting  from  the  head, 
wings,  and  legs,  leading  to  a  more  marked 
appearance  of  separate  combinations,  giving 
greater  prominence  to  the  head.  When  from 
this  we  rise  to  the  fah,  thence  to  the  bird, 
thence  to  the  quadruped,  we  find  the  head 
made  conspicuously  the  central  organ  of  the 
entire  nerve  system  of  the  animal,  while  it 
occupies  the  front  position  in  the  body.  It 
is  no  longer  one  of  a  set  or  series  of  knots; 
nor  even  the  largest  or  more  conspicuous  in 
a  graduated  order  of  centres;  but  in  the  head 
of  the  animal  is  found  that  which  is  the  true 
nerve  centre  for  the  whole  nerve  system,  des- 
ignated the  brain.  In  the  case  of  the  verte- 
brates, not  only  does  the  skeleton  afford  the 
solid  frame-work  on  which  the  muscular  sys- 
tem is  built,  but  the  back-bone  contains 
within  it  the  main  column  of  nerve  fibres, 
which  are  given  out  at  the  several  joints  ac- 
cording to  the  requirements  of  the  body. 

If  meanwhile  we  concentrate  attention  on 
our  own  bodies,  we  may  by  the  aid  of  per- 
sonal experience  find  easy  illustration  of  the 
prominent  features  of  the  nerve  system.  We 
shall  take  first  the  two  distinct  lines  of  nerves 


210  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

already  mentioned,  the  one  set  concerned  with 
sensibility,  the  other  with  movement  of  the 
muscles.  From  the  tips  of  the  fingers  there 
run  lines  of  nerve  fibre,  which  are  brought 
into  combination  at  the  wrist,  and  are  car- 
ried up  the  arm,  and  onward  by  the  shoulder 
and  upper  portion  of  the  back-bone  to  the 
head.  These  are  the  nerves  of  sensibility,  by 
means  of  which,  as  by  telegraph  wires,  the 
slightest  impression  made  on  the  tips  of  the 
fingers  is  instantly  conveyed  to  the  great  nerve 
centre  in  the  brain.  Distinct  from  these  is 
another  set  of  nerves  issuing  from  the  brain, 
and  descending  the  arm,  giving  off  its  fibres 
as  it  passes  to  the  several  muscles  above  the 
elbow,  next  to  those  above  the  wrist,  and 
next  to  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and  fingers. 
These  are  the  nerves  of  movement,  by  means 
of  which  the  whole  arm  may  be  brought  into 
action  at  pleasure,  or  the  hand  may  be  set  to 
work,  while  the  arm  is  at  rest. 

These  two  sets  of  nerves — the  sensory  and 
motor — are  exactly  similar  in  structure,  con- 
sisting of  an  outer  covering,  within  which 
floating  in  a  white  fluid  is  a  thread  which 
constitutes  the  nerve  proper.  The  outer  cov- 
ering provides  for  isolation  of  the  fibre,  from 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  211 

other  fibres  laid  alongside  of  it,  just  as  copper 
wire  is  isolated  by  a  gutta-percha  covering 
when  the  two  connecting  lines  from  an  elec- 
tric battery  are  laid  down  in  close  proximity 
as  in  the  arrangement  for  electric  bells.  By 
this  provision  the  nerve  fibres  are  completely 
isolated  making  it  possible  to  distinguish  sen- 
sory impressions  so  as  to  tell  which  finger  has 
been  touched.  The  similarity  of  structure  in 
the  two  lines  of  nerves  is  a  striking  fact  in 
view  of  the  completely  distinct  functions  ful- 
filled. This  leads  to  a  special  explanation  of 
the  provision  for  different  modes  of  action. 
This  is  secured  by  diversity  in  the  terminal 
arrangements  for  the  two  classes  of  nerves. 
The  nerves  of  sensibility  have  a  peculiarly  sen- 
sitive arrangement  spread  under  the  skin,  con- 
stituting an  end-bulb  or  touch  organ.  In  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  body  more  sensitive  than 
others,  such  as  the  tips  of  the  fingers,  there 
are  additional  minute  corpuscles,  grouped 
alongside  of  the  nerve,  liable  to  contract 
under  the  slightest  pressure,  and  which  add 
greatly  to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  particular 
parts  about  which  they  cluster.  The  termi- 
nal arrangements  of  the  motor  nerves  are 
quite  different.  The  nerve  fibres  pass  into 


212  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

the  substance  of  the  muscle  to  be  moved  by 
them,  and  the  nerve  fibre  is  subdivided  and 
distributed,  so  as  to  bring  the  several  parts 
of  the  muscle  under  control.  These  fibres 
are  so  laid  and  connected,  that  a  whole  set 
of  muscles  can  be  moved  simultaneously,  be- 
ing made  to  work  in  perfect  harmony. 

The  vital  activity  of  this  whole  arrangement 
of  nerve  fibres,  including  sensory  and  motor 
in  one  system,  depends  upon  living  connection 
of  all  with  the  great  nerve  centre  in  the  brain, 
where  the  nerve  energy  is  provided  which 
keeps  all  in  functional  activity.  Only,  there 
is  this  striking  difference  with  the  two  sets  of 
fibres,  that  in  the  case  of  the  sensory  nerve 
the  pulsation  of  energy  is  upwards  to  the 
brain,  in  the  case  of  the  motor  nerve  it  is 
downwards  towards  the  muscle.  There  is  no 
scientific  explanation  yet  reached  of  this  con- 
trast of  molecular  action.  But  by  means  of 
it  the  one  order  of  nerves  plays  the  part  of 
a  vehicle  of  impression  providing  for  know- 
ledge of  what  is  without,  the  other  order  ful- 
fils the  part  of  an  instrument  for  moving  the 
muscular  system  which  is  part  of  the  organism 
itself. 

These  two  orders  are  not,  however,  to  be 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  213 

regarded  as  separate  systems  quite  apart  from 
each  other,  but  as  two  sides  of  one  system, 
which  are  essentially  and  closely  related  to 
each  other.  There  is  a  provision  for  com- 
bined action  of  the  two  sets,  so  that  an  im- 
pulse communicated  along  a  sensory  nerve  or 
set  of  nerves,  may  pass  over  to  the  motor 
system  and  terminate  in  muscular  activity. 
This  is  most  simply  illustrated  by  the  circum- 
stance that  the  nerves  of  sensibility  become 
instruments  of  pain,  when  a  severe  shock  or 
blow  is  given,  or  some  injury  is  inflicted. 
Suffering  becomes  a  signal  of  risk  and  in- 
stantly the  injured  part  shrinks  or  starts  away 
from  the  source  of  suffering.  This  is  a  phase 
of  sensori-motor  activity  illustrating  a  law 
which  has  a  wide  range  of  application  in 
animal  life.  This  sketch  of  the  arrangements 
and  functions  of  the  two  sides  of  the  nerve 
system  though  traced  in  view  of  its  application 
to  human  nature,  will  suffice  to  indicate  the 
general  plan  in  accordance  with  which  sensi- 
bility and  muscular  activity  are  provided  for 
in  the  animal  kingdom  generally.  The  rami- 
fication of  the  nerve  lines  will  in  each  case  be 
according  to  the  simplicity  or  complexity  of 
structure  belonging  to  the  animal;  but  the 


214  SCIENCE    AND   RELIGION. 

provisions  for  sensitiveness  to  touch,  and 
power  of  movement  are  in  all  cases  the 
same.  Fish,  bird,  and  quadruped  are  alike 
sensitive  to  touch,  and  they  are  alike  capable 
of  movement,  though  the  mechanical  contriv- 
ances by  which  locomotion  is  secured  vary 
greatly;  but  a  double  distribution  of  nerve 
fibres  in  all  cases  provides  for  these  two  char- 
acteristics of  animal  life. 

From  this,  we  advance  to  the  nerve  centre, 
— the  brain, — to  which  the  nerves  of  sensi- 
bility run  up,  and  from  which  the  nerves  of 
motion  come  forth.  Here  also  there  is  iden- 
tity in  the  nature  of  the  organ,  while  there  is 
variety  in  its  size,  with  more  or  less  compli- 
cated plans  of  arrangement,  according  to  the 
extent  of  the  nerve  system  of  which  it  is  the 
central  organ.  Still  keeping  to  the  human 
body  for  illustration,  we  may  find  in  the  most 
complex  organism  known  to  us  illustration  of 
what  holds  good  in  the  main  so  far  as  essential 
structure  is  concerned. 

The  brain  is  made  up  of  two  entirely  dis- 
tinct substances.  In  the  interior  of  the  organ, 
and  altogether  concealed  from  view  when  a 
drawing  of  it  is  made,  or  the  organ  itself  is 
exposed  to  observation,  is  a  white  mass  con- 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  215 

sisting  of  a  multitude  of  fibres.  These  are  sim- 
ply crowds  of  nerve  lines  gathered  together, 
led  up  from  the  extremities  and  trunk,  or 
provided  for  intercommunication  with  the  sev- 
eral parts  of  this  central  organ.  Gathered  all 
round  about  this,  and  constituting  the  exter- 
nal mass,  on  the  summit,  sides,  and  base  of 
the  brain,  is  a  completely  distinct  substance 
known  as  the  grey  matter,  folded  up  in  wav- 
ings,  twistings,  or  convolutions,  enclosing  my- 
riads of  cells  from  which  nerve  energy  is 
discharged.  These  cells  differ  considerably 
in  form  and  size,  suggesting  the  possibility 
of  distinct  functions  being  assigned  to  cells 
of  different  structure,  some  being  smaller  and 
less  intimately  connected  with  those  around, 
others  so  much  larger  and  more  important  as 
to  have  suggested  the  name  of  pyramidal  cells, 
and  also  having  lines  of  connection  between 
themselves  and  other  parts  much  more  nu- 
merous than  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  cells. 
Every  cell  has  a  nucleus  or  central  point, 
which  is  the  centre  of  vitality,  while  the  fibres 
which  they  send  out,  varying  in  number  from 
one  to  four  or  five,  establish  connection  be- 
tween cells,  or  pass  into  the  nerves  proper. 
These  cells  are  packed  together  in  a  soft  glu- 


216  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

tinous  substance,  in  the  outer  layer  of  which 
they  are  fewer  in  number;  approaching  the 
interior,  they  become  more  numerous;  and 
they  are  both  more  abundant,  larger  in  size, 
and  more  distinguished  by  the  number  of  their 
protoplasmic  *  fibres  as  they  lie  nearer  to  the 
mass  of  nerve  fibres.  In  this  crowd  of  nerve 
cells  are  the  stores  of  nerve  energy  supplied 
to  the  nerve  system,  with  every  exercise  of 
which  molecular  changes  in  the  brain  are  be- 
lieved to  take  place.  On  this  account  there 
must  be  regular  and  ample  supply  of  nourish- 
ment for  the  brain,  for  which  such  provision 
has  been  made  that,  according  to  Haller's 
computation,  one  fifth  part  of  the  whole  blood 
supply  goes  to  the  brain. 

Regarded  as  the  great  central  organ,  the 
brain  is  divided  into  two  halves  or  hemi- 
spheres, from  each  one  of  which  goes  forth 
supply  of  nerve  fibres  and  nerve  energy  for 
the  opposite  side  of  the  body.  Its  greatest 
depth  is  in  the  central  part,  the  front  and 
back  being  rounded  down,  the  frontal  region 
being,  however,  considerably  more  massive 
than  the  rear.  Besides  this  great  central  body, 
there  are  several  dependent  subordinate  bodies, 

*  Protoplasm,  see  Appendix  VIL 


8  as 
2  i 


M      W 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  217 

placed  underneath,  and  directly  above  the  up- 
per part  of  the  spine.  Most  important  of 
these  is  the  cerebellum,  or  little  brain,  whose 
functions  are  now  generally  believed  to  be 
closely  connected  with  the  equilibrium  of  the 
body  when  moving.  Somewhat  nearer  the 
centre,  and  quite  under  the  brain  proper  is 
the  pons  or  bridge,  providing  for  the  inter- 
lacing of  the  fibres  on  their  way  out  from  the 
the  central  organ,  and  just  below  that  are  cer- 
tain elongated  bodies  (medulla  oblongata),  con- 
sisting of  masses  of  fibre  just  above  the  spinal 
cord. 

Before  closing  this  very  brief  and  hasty  de- 
scription of  the  nerve  system,  there  is  one 
peculiarly  striking  arrangement  to  which  spe- 
cial reference  may  be  made.  The  mass  of 
nerve  fibre  which  passes  down  within  the 
back-bone  constituting  the  spinal  column, 
which  is  formed  in  two  divisions  equivalent 
to  the  hemispheres  of  the  brain,  gives  out  at 
each  of  the  vertebra  or  spinal  joints  a  supply 
of  nerve  for  the  portion  of  the  body  contigu- 
ous. This  supply  is  sent  out  from  each  side 
of  the  column,  and  issues  in  two  roots,  a  pos- 
terior and  anterior;  the  posterior  root  being  a 
body  of  sensory  nerves,  the  anterior  root  of 


218  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

motor  nerves.  Shortly  after  passing  out,  these 
two  form  into  one,  uniting  to  constitute  a  nerve 
trunk.  Just  after  they  have  thus  united,  the 
trunk  again  opens  up  into  two,  and  in  each 
one  of  these  two  a  share  of  the  sensory  and 
motor  roots  finds  a  place,  and  thus  preparation 
is  made  for  sending  out  towards  both  the  front 
and  back  of  the  body  suitable  proportion  of 
both  sets  of  nerves.  The  two  roots  drawn 
together  as  if  to  bind  them  into  one,  are  by 
some  inexplicable  process  subdivided,  and  the 
two  bands  issuing  from  the  united  band  are 
found  to  have  each  a  share  of  the  contents  of 
each  root.  Of  all  the  singular  occurrences 
coming  under  scientific  observation  there  is 
nothing  more  surprising.  The  fact  is  certain, 
but  there  is  no  scientific  explanation  of  the 
contrivance  by  which  such  a  singular  result  is 
secured. 

Having  now  before  us  in  outline  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  nervous  system  of  man,  and 
having  in  this  a  guide  to  the  understanding 
of  the  prominent  features  involved  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  two  orders  of  nerves  over  the 
body,  and  their  concentration  in  a  central 
organ,  we  are  prepared  for  considering  the 
comparative  brain  development  presented  to 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  219 

view  as  we  ascend  the  scale  of  animal  life. 
The  main  features  of  gradation  may  be  shortly 
stated.  In  all  cases,  the  brain  is  a  soft  pulpy 
body,  composed  as  described,  the  exterior  por- 
tion being  cellular  tissue,  the  interior  fibrous, 
from  the  gathering  of  nerve  lines.  In  the 
lowest  orders  of  animals,  the  brain  is  of  very 
small  size.  In  the  insects,  such  as  the  ant, 
bee,  and  wasp,  it  is  only  a  slight  band  stretch- 
ing from  eye  to  eye.  In  the  whole  order  of 
fishes  an  advance  in  organization  appears, 
though  the  brain  is  small  relatively  to  the  size 
of  the  body,  a  fact  which  seems  readily  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  there  is  little  articu- 
lation in  the  structure  of  the  fish,  the  whole 
body  moving  in  one  mass,  by  simple  manage- 
ment of  the  fins  and  tail.  The  brain  as  a  rule 
is  simply  two  small  round  lobes  of  smooth  sur- 
face laid  together;  and  what  is  most  to  be  re- 
marked is  that  the  brain  proper  is  quite  in- 
ferior in  size  to  lobes  of  vision.*  In  front  of 
the  brain  are  slight  strands  connected  with 
the  organ  of  smell;  and  behind  it  are  the  two 
large  lobes  known  as  optic  lobes,  before  which 

*  Unless  references  are  otherwise  given,  illustration  of  the 
structure  of  brain  here  referred  to,  will  be  found  in  my  work, 
The  Relations  of  Mind  and  Brain,  from  p.  125,  onwards. 


220  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

the  brain  appears  comparatively  insignificant. 
This  is  the  ordinary  arrangement,  but  in  the 
case  of  the  shark  the  brain  extends  to  much 
larger  proportions,  greatly  surpassing  the  op- 
tic lobes,  and  having  in  front  of  it  unusually 
ample  provision  for  the  organ  of  smell.* 

When  we  reach  the  reptiles  the  normal  or- 
der appears  which  continues  thereafter  up  the 
whole  range  of  animal  life.  The  brain  takes 
precedence  of  the  lobes  of  special  sense,  and 
is  the  most  important  organ.  This  appears 
quite  decisively  in  the  brain  of  the  frog.  On 
account  of  the  possession  of  four  limbs,  and 
its  power  of  locomotion  by  forward  leaps, 
provided  for  by  the  superior  size  and  strength 
of  the  hind  legs,  there  is  much  greater  need 
for  distribution  of  nerve  lines,  to  place  dis- 
tinct muscles  under  control,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence the  brain  or  central  organ  assumes 
a  position  of  greater  importance. 

Passing  next  to  birds,  we  find  a  marked 
advance  in  the  structure  of  the  brain.  The 
two  hemispheres  are  considerably  extended 
towards  the  rear,  and  the  two  optic  lobes 
underneath  the  back  part  of  the  brain  are 
separated  from  each  other,  being  placed  some- 

*  Ihe  Brain  as  the  Organ  of  ffind,  by  Dr.  Bastian,  p.  115. 


BRAIN   OF  THE   BIRD. 


BRAIN   OF  THE  CAT, 

WITH     BULB     OF    SMELL    IN     FRONT,     AND    LITTLE     BRAIN     BEHIND. 


CalderwooiC s  Lectures. 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  221 

what  to  the  side.  The  cerebellum,  or  little 
brain,  regulating  equilibrium  becomes  more 
important  in  size  and  form,  being  laid  up 
in  transverse  furrows.  These  important  ad- 
vances indicate  a  life  of  much  more  varied  ac- 
tivity than  in  the  lower  orders.  This  ani- 
mal walks,  hops,  perches  on  branches  by  the 
clutching  of  its  claws,  and  flies  from  place  to 
place.  To  provide  for  these  varied  forms  of 
activity,  there  must  be  a  more  detailed  ar- 
rangement of  nerve  system,  which  is  clearly 
indicated  in  the  complexity  of  the  central 
organ. 

The  next  advance  introduces  to  notice  the 
smaller  quadrupeds,  known  as  the  rodents,  of 
which  the  rat,  rabbit,  and  hare  may  be  taken 
as  the  most  familiar  examples.  Here  we  still 
have  the  smooth  surface  of  the  brain,  without 
any  subdivision  and  twining  into  folds  such  as 
afterwards  appears,  but  it  is  somewhat  elon- 
gated in  shape.  An  additional  element  here 
comes  into  view,  that  is,  extra  provision  for 
acuteness  of  smell,  in  accordance  with  the 
well-known  characteristics  of  the  class  of  ani- 
mals. Set  out  in  front  of  the  brain  are  two 
distinct  lobes,  which  are  the  olfactory  lobes. 
Wherever  these  are  so  placed  in  front  of  the 


222  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

brain,  it  is  a  clear  proof  that  the  life  of  the 
animal  is  largely  directed  by  smell,  that  is,  in 
a  relatively  greater  degree  than  by  sight, 
though  constantly  using  the  organs  of  vision 
with  rapidity  and  acuteness.  The  cerebellum 
is  in  all  cases  prominent  to  the  rear,  present- 
ing the  laminated  appearance  always  distinct- 
ive of  the  organ. 

We  now  make  a  very  marked  transition  in 
the  development  of  brain,  introducing  to  view 
the  doubled  or  convoluted  form  occasioned 
by  the  folding  of  the  material  in  a  series  of 
windings, — a  form  which  is  in  complete  con- 
trast from  the  smooth  surface  characteristic 
of  the  brain  in  all  lower  orders.  This  series 
of  windings  or  convolutions  appears  quite  de- 
cidedly in  the  brain  of  the  cat,  in  a  manner 
very  similar  in  the  brain  of  the  dog,  and  with 
still  greater  beauty  and  amplitude  of  fold  in 
the  brain  of  the  horse.  This  folding  process 
which  is  resorted  to  in  the  case  of  all  the 
higher  quadrupeds,  seems  a  contrivance  by 
which  it  is  possible  to  pack  a  greater  amount 
of  material  in  such  a  way  as  to  expose  a 
greater  degree  of  surface,  within  the  narrow 
space  at  command  inside  the  cranium.  In  all 
the  three  examples  named,  great  prominence 


BRAIN   OF   HORSE, 

IITH     BULB     OF    SMELL     IN     FRONT,     LITTLE     BRAIN     IN     REAR. 


DIAGRAM  OF  SENSORY  AND  MOTOR   APPARATUS. 

THE     UPPER     IS    THE    SENSORY,     WITH     BULB,    NERVE     LINE,     AND    NERVE    CELL. 
THE    UNDER     IS    THE     MOTOR,     WITH     MUSCLE,     NERVE     LINE,     AND     NERVE    CELL. 


CaM,-riii0f>f/"s   Lectures. 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  223 

is  given  to  the  bulbs  of  smell,  which  are 
spread  out  quite  conspicuously  in  front  of  the 
brain, — implying,  as  in  lower  examples,  a  life 
largely  governed  by  sense  of  smell. 

Omitting  special  reference  to  animals  of 
great  bulk,  and  possessing  enormous  muscu- 
lar power,  such  as  the  elephant  and  the  whale, 
both  of  which  have  singularly  complicated  and 
beautiful  brains,  I  pass  to  the  races  of  monkeys 
and  apes,  which  are  nearest  in  structure  to 
man.  In  these  animals  the  configuration  of 
body  is  certainly  the  nearest  approach  to  the 
human  figure  which  is  to  be  found  anywhere 
in  the  animal  kingdom.  They  can  not,  in- 
deed, assume  the  perfectly  erect  posture  of 
man,  but  they  come  very  near  to  it;  and 
though  they  move  on  all  four  limbs,  feeling 
themselves  more  secure  in  that  mode  of  ad- 
vance, they  have  a  formation  of  hand  analo- 
gous to  that  of  man,  with  a  distinctly  formed 
thumb,  enabling  them  to  grasp  an  object  in  a 
manner  closely  resembling  the  human  grasp. 
The  apes  have  even  an  advantage  over  the 
human  race,  for  they  have  a  thumb  on  the 
foot,  as  well  as  on  the  hand;  which  may  also 
have  its  own  disadvantages,  for  it  might  prove 
no  convenience  to  us  if  we  were  so  endowed. 


224  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

But  the  presence  of  the  thumb  on  the  lower 
extremities  suggests  the  use  which  it  serves 
in  the  animal's  ordinary  life,  in  grasping  the 
branches  along  which  it  moves.  If  from  the 
similarity  of  outward  configuration,  we  pass 
to  contemplate  the  brain,  we  find  here  also 
great  similarity  of  structure.  And  indeed  if 
the  relations  of  muscle,  nerve,  and  brain  be 
as  already  indicated,  it  follows  from  the  re- 
semblances of  outward  form  that  there  must 
be  a  greater  resemblance  between  the  brain 
of  man  and  the  brain  of  the  monkey  and  of 
the  ape,  than  between  the  human  brain  and 
that  of  any  other  animal  known  to  us.  And 
so  it  proves  to  be.  The  brain  of  the  monkey 
has  its  subdivisions  and  convolutions  very  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  the  human  brain,  only  the 
convolutions  are  simpler  in  arrangement.  In 
outline  it  is  deficient  only  in  the  diminished 
bulk  of  the  front  part,  and  also  the  back  part 
of  the  organ;  but  in  its  expansion  it  resem- 
bles the  human  brain  in  this,  that  to  the  rear 
it  spreads  back  over  the  cerebellum,  so  as  to 
cover  it.  The  brain  of  the  ape,  including 
under  this  designation  the  orang,  gorilla,  and 
chimpanzee,  is  in  still  closer  resemblance  to 
the  human,  being  still,  however,  somewhat 


Calderwood'' s  Lectures. 


BRAIN  OF  MONKEY, 

WITH    CEREBELLUM    BENEATH. 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  225 

simpler  in  the  arrangement  of  its  convolutions, 
but  so  closely  approximating  that  the  exact 
state  of  the  case  is  as  nearly  as  possible  de- 
scribed, if  we  say  that  the  brain  of  the  ape, 
while  it  is  decidedly  smaller,  appears  like  a 
miniature  of  the  human  brain  in  a  slightly 
undeveloped  state.* 

The  human  brain  is  an  elaborate  organ,  ex- 
ceedingly complicated  in  its  convolutions.  We 
can  not,  indeed,  describe  it  as  the  most  convo- 
luted, for  the  brain  of  the  elephant  is  at  least 
as  distinguished  for  the  beauty  and  complica- 
tion of  its  folding,  and  the  brain  of  the  whale 
is  far  more  minute  and  detailed,  presenting 
quite  a  multitude  of  minute  convolutions. 
For  descriptive  purposes,  the  human  brain  is 
divided  into  four  superficial  areas,  known  as 
lobes,  and  pretty  clearly  defined  by  certain 
natural  boundaries.  From  the  lower  part  of 
the  organ,  entering  at  a  point  scarcely  half 
way  back  is  a  fissure  or  cutting  running  up 
into  the  mass  in  a  direction  uniformly  inclin- 
ing towards  the  rear,  known  as  the  Sylvian 
fissure;  while  coming  over  the  summit,  at 
a  point  near  the  middle,  and  inclining  down 
towards  that  just  described,  is  another  fissure, 
known  as  the  fissure  of  Rolando.  By  these 

*  See  Appendix  XI. 


226  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

two  deeply  cut  hollows,  the  brain  is  marked 
off  into  four  separate  areas  superficially,  a 
front  and  a  rear  lobe;  and  two  central  lobes, 
the  one  upper  and  the  other  under.  Besides 
this  there  is  a  concealed  and  isolated  lobe, 
described  on  account  of  its  situation  as  an 
island,  which  is  covered  from  view  by  the 
overlapping  of  the  two  sides  of  the  Sylvian 
fissure.  Such  is  a  description  in  outline  of 
the  configuration  of  the  human  brain,  to  which 
must  be  added  the  statement  that  each  lobe  is 
filled  in  with  its  own  special  arrangement  of 
convolutions,  each  one  having  at  least  three 
well  denned  lines  of  convolution.  Each  of  the 
hemispheres  is  similarly  arranged,  though  not 
by  any  means  quite  identical  in  disposal  of 
convolutions,  yet  the  general  description  now 
given  is  strictly  applicable  to  both.  The  two 
hemispheres,  connected  mainly  with  the  ram- 
ification of  nerve  fibre  running  to  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  body,  are  united  together  a  con- 
siderable way  down  by  a  transverse  band  of 
nerve  fibres,  which  at  once  unite  the  two  into 
one  organ,  and  make  the  union  so  effected  a 
living  efficient  union  by  carrying  a  multitude 
of  lines  of  communication  from  the  one  side 
to  the  other.  Just  below  this,  in  the  interior 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  227 

of  the  organ  are  two  great  central  bodies, 
known  as  the  basal  ganglia,  and  consisting 
of  nerve  fibres  massed  together  with  grey 
matter  around  them,  that  in  front  being  chief- 
ly motor  nerves  brought  to  a  junction,  the 
latter  sensory  nerves  combined  in  like  man- 
ner. The  same  arrangement  holds  in  both 
hemispheres,  thereby  providing  that  the  re- 
spective masses  of  motor,  and  of  sensory 
nerves  lie  exactly  opposite  each  other.  Be- 
hind these  in  the  centre,  lying  in  a  position 
under  both  hemispheres  are  four  small  bulbs 
connected  with  the  nerves  of  vision,  and  also 
with  the  cerebellum;  and  behind  them,  cov- 
ered by  the  posterior  lobe  of  the  brain  is  the 
cerebellum  itself,  or  little  brain,  largely  con- 
cerned with  coordination  of  movements,  or 
equilibrium  of  the  two  sides  of  the  system. 
Just  below  these  arrangements  the  two  great 
cords  of  nerve  fibre  descend  towards  the 
body,  which  are  covered  by  a  transverse 
mass,  known  as  the  bridge,  appearing  com- 
plete as  a  crossing,  and  containing  transverse 
fibres  from  the  cerebellum,  as  well  as  a  series 
of  longitudinal  fibres.  Immediately  under- 
neath the  bridge  are  pillars  or  masses  of 
nerve,  constituting  the  crowning  portion  of 


228  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

the  spinal  system,  and  formed  in  eight  distinct 
bodies,  the  two  in  front  and  the  two  in  rear 
being  elongated  and  known  as  pyramids,  those 
in  the  centre  being  rounded  in  figure.  From 
the  elongated  bodies,  the  nerve  fibres  pass 
across  to  the  opposite  sides  of  the  body. 
This  gathering  is  known  as  the  medulla  ob- 
longata.  Just  beneath  comes  the  spinal  canal, 
from  which  at  the  different  joints  of  the  spine 
are  given  out  a  suitable  supply  of  sensory  and 
motor  nerves  as  previously  described. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  account  of  the 
central  arrangements  of  the  nerve  system  of 
the  human  body,  it  is  important  to  state  that 
an  order  of  things  closely  analogous  obtains 
in  other  and  lower  orders  of  organism,  in  re- 
spect of  interior  plan,  so  that  if  the  interior 
of  the  brain  of  the  dog  were  laid  open  to  view 
it  would  present  a  plan  of  distribution  very 
similar  to  that  now  described. 

To  complete  the  view  of  the  functions  of 
the  brain  as  indicated  by  recent  research,  I 
have  next  to  give  a  brief  account  of  an  ex- 
tended course  of  experiments  of  great  del- 
icacy designed  to  ascertain  whether  it  may  be 
possible  to  localize  certain  functions  within  a 
definite  area  of  the  brain.  All  are  familiar 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  229 

with  the  fanciful  subdivisions  of  the  outer 
surface  of  the  human  skull,  under  the  name 
of  phrenology,  represented  on  moulds  of  the 
head,  all  marked  with  dividing  lines  and  fig- 
ures. This  pretentious  and  unscientific  assump- 
tion of  knowledge  which  no  one  possessed, 
has  had  its  time  of  popularity,  aided  by  a 
general  recognition  of  comparative  superiority 
in  head  formation  in  persons  of  known  ability. 
Any  thing  equivalent  to  an  exact  partition 
of  the  bony  covering  protecting  the  brain, 
has  not  been  favored  by  scientific  observa- 
tions; but  these  fanciful  maps  of  the  head, 
which  have  been  sold  cheap,  and  fully  cer- 
tified, may  serve  as  a  guide  to  a  general  no- 
tion of  what  has  been  attempted  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  brain  itself,  after  removal  of  the 
skull.  The  illustrative  aid,  however,  consists 
in  nothing  more  than  the  suggestion  of  dis- 
tinct areas,  for  there  is  no  analogy  between 
what  has  been  discovered  by  the  observations 
now  to  be  described,  and  the  ' '  bumps  "  al- 
leged to  be  found  on  the  cranium. 

The  conjecture  which  may  be  said  to  have 
originated  experiments  as  to  localization  was 
that  there  was  a  close  resemblance  between 
the  action  of  nerve  energy,  and  an  electric 


230  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

current.  The  attempt  made  was  to  similate 
the  action  of  the  nerve  cells,  by  discharging 
a  current  of  electricity  upon  the  grey  matter 
of  the  brain,  and  recording  the  results  which 
came  under  observation.  Experiments  were 
begun  in  1870  in  Germany  by  Fritsch  and 
Hitzig,  the  dog  being  the  animal  experimented 
upon.  The  investigation  was  undertaken  also 
by  Dr.  Ferrier  of  King's  College  London,  and 
much  more  extended  and  varied  results  were 
published  by  him  in  1873.  Confirmatory 
work,  executed  with  many  precautions,  was 
undertaken  on  the  subject  in  1874  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  New  York  Society  of  Neurol- 
ogy and  Electrology, — a  committee  which  in- 
cluded Drs.  Dalton,  Arnold,  Beard,  Flint,  and 
Masson, — testing  results  by  frequent  renewal 
of  the  experiments;  and  at  the  same  time,  a 
similar  course  of  inquiry  was  being  conducted 
in  Paris  by  Carville  and  Duret.* 

By  these  investigations,  the  possibility  of 
electric  stimulation  of  the  cortical  or  grey 
matter  of  the  brain,  and  consequent  activity 
of  the  nerve  system  has  been  fully  established; 
and  though  there  is  still  considerable  diversity 

*  For  detailed  narrative,  see  my  work  on   The  Eelations  of 
Mind  and  Brain,  chap.  iv.  p.  79. 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  231 

of  opinion  concerning  the  interpretation  of 
the  facts,  it  can  not  be  disputed  that  by  di- 
recting the  electrode  on  certain  well  defined 
areas  of  the  surface  of  the  brain,  it  is  possible 
to  bring  into  natural  activity  certain  portions 
of  the  muscular  system,  as  controlled  by  the 
motor  nerves. 

The  plan  adopted  is,  after  putting  the  an- 
imal into  an  insensible  state  by  use  of  chlo- 
roform, and  removing  the  cranium  so  as  to 
expose  the  brain,  to  apply  the  electrode  con- 
nected with  an  electric  battery  to  a  given 
point  on  the  surface,  record  the  result,  and 
gradually  shift  the  needle  round  the  original 
spot  until  a  new  result  is  obtained,  in  which 
the  spot  previously  tested  becomes  an  index 
for  the  boundary  of  one  circle,  and  this  marks 
the  fact  that  a  new  circle  has  been  entered. 

By  this  process  of  investigation  a  series  of 
centres  for  active  stimulation  have  been  discov- 
ered. These  number,  in  the  brain  of  the  rat, 
six;  in  the  brain  of  the  rabbit,  seven;  of  the  cat, 
eleven;  of  the  dog,  thirteen;  and  of  the  mon- 
key, at  least,  seventeen.  A  curious  limitation 
to  the  area  of  experiment  has  been  encoun- 
tered here,  for  all  the  centres  identified  are 
found  to  cluster  over  the  central  region  of  the 


232  SCIENCE  AND    RELIGION. 

brain,  and  both  the  front  and  rear  parts  of 
the  organ  are  silent,  offering  no  response 
however  greatly  stimulated.  The  explana- 
tion of  this  silence  remains  a  matter  of  doubt. 
It  may  be  that  these  portions  of  the  brain  are 
concerned  with  movements  which  do  not  come 
under  the  observation  of  the  operator,  or  that 
they  are  centres  of  sensibility  from  which  no 
movement  can  naturally  follow,  or  that  they 
fulfil  functions  which  can  not  be  recognized  by 
this  mode  of  experiment.  Uncertainty  hangs 
over  this  department  in  the  investigation. 

The  actual  results  may  be  indicated  by  a 
few  examples.  At  a  point  well  forward  in 
the  brain  of  the  dog,  marked  number  one  by 
Ferrier,  is  a  centre  which  when  stimulated 
leads  to  movement  of  the  hind  leg  on  the  op- 
posite side;  and  by  exciting  another  portion 
of  the  brain  quite  contiguous,  marked  num- 
ber four,  movement  of  the  opposite  fore  leg  is 
produced.  By  exciting  a  point  situated  over 
these  two  and  on  a  distinct  convolution,  wag- 
ging of  the  tail  is  induced.  By  transferring 
the  needle  to  a  point  much  lower  down, 
towards  the  base  of  the  brain,  but  still  well 
forward,  marked  by  Ferrier  nine,  the  mouth 
is  opened  and  the  tongue  moved,  while  in 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  233 

many  cases  a  decided  bark  is  emitted.  These 
examples  may  suffice  to  indicate  the  class  of 
results  obtained;  and  similar  results  have  been 
seen  in  all  animals  subjected  to  this  test,  with 
such  variations  as  may  be  considered  inevita- 
ble in  view  of  the  configuration  of  the  animal. 
While  distinct  areas  or  circles  of  the  brain 
have  thus  been  marked,  warranting  localizing 
of  certain  functions,  the  facts  connected  with 
these  experiments  do  not  favor  the  view  that 
each  area  is  to  be  taken  as  so  rigidly  distinct 
that  it  may  be  supposed  to  operate  separately 
in  a  quite  isolated  manner.  On  the  contrary, 
a  conjoint  action  of  several  centres  seems  more 
commonly  implied  when  the  natural  activity 
of  the  brain  is  contemplated  in  line  of  these 
results.  Additional  weight  must  be  given  to 
this  consideration,  when  it  is  noticed  that  the 
centres  are  nominally  motor  centres, — move- 
ment and  not  sensibility  being  the  result  most 
patent  to  the  observer, — nevertheless  on  closer 
scrutiny  it  proves  true,  that  many  of  the  move- 
ments occasioned  by  electric  stimulation  are 
those  induced  naturally  as  the  result  of  sensa- 
tion. Such  for  example  are  the  movements 
of  the  eyelids  consequent  upon  a  dazzling  of 
the  eyes,  or  movement  of  the  ears  because 


234  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

of  a  startling  sound.  In  this  way  it  becomes 
clear  that  within  a  given  area  a  centre  of  sen- 
sibility is  in  communication  with  a  motor  cen- 
tre close  by,  or  it  may  be  even  at  some  little 
distance.  Thus  this  most  delicate  and  diffi- 
cult course  of  investigation  supports  the  view 
that  much  of  the  activity  of  the  animal  organ- 
ism is  provided  for  by  an  established  connec- 
tion between  nerve  cells  respectively  present- 
ing the  terminus  in  the  brain  for  a  sensory 
nerve,  and  the  starting  point  for  a  motor 
nerve,  or  point  of  communication  with  such 
a  nerve.  From  this  conclusion,  it  follows  that 
a  very  large  amount  of  the  activity  which  we 
witness  in  the  case  of  animals,  often  attributed 
to  instinct,  or  even  to  voluntary  determina- 
tion, is  to  be  described  as  sensori-motor  ac- 
tivity. That  is  to  say,  the  action  is  brought 
about  by  a  contrivance  which  may  be  de- 
scribed as  partly  mechanical,  partly  chemical. 
Its  history  may  be  sketched  in  this  way:  an 
impression  is  made  on  one  of  the  nerves  of 
sensibility,  or  on  one  of  the  organs  of  special 
sense,  such  as  the  eye  or  ear;  a  wave  of  im- 
pulse passes  along  the  incarrying  nerve  fibre, 
leading  to  molecular  change  in  the  nerve  cell, 
and  to  sensibility  in  some  way  unknown;  the 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  235 

excitation  occasioned  there  is  extended  along 
a  connecting  fibre  to  a  second  nerve  cell,  which 
is  the  starting  point  for  a  motor  nerve;  along 
that  line  the  impulse  is  instantly  and  inevita- 
bly continued;  and  as  an  almost  instantaneous 
result,  without  any  form  of  sensibility  to  in- 
dicate what  is  taking  place,  the  muscular  en- 
ergy is  liberated,  and  action  is  the  direct  con- 
sequence. The  problem  which  immediately 
arises  is  this, — How  far  may  the  activity  of  all 
living  organism  be  accounted  for  in  this  way, 
including  even  the  activity  of  man  ?  This  is 
a  problem  which  will  present  an  interesting 
subject  for  discussion  in  the  next  stage  of  this 
inquiry,  the  import  of  which  must  now  be 
made  apparent  by  the  sketch  of  the  structure 
of  the  nerve  system,  and  the  results  of  the 
experiments  as  to  localization. 

Nothing  more  is  now  required  to  complete 
this  narrative  leading  up  to  this  problem,  and 
discovering  its  proportions,  than  a  brief  ac- 
count of  correlative  inquiry  which  has  afforded 
strong  confirmatory  evidence  as  to  the  truth 
of  the  conclusions  favoring  localization,  and 
coordinate  action  of  different  portions  of  the 
brain  as  the  central  organ  governing  the 
whole  nerve  system.  The  corroberative  evi- 


236  SCIENCE,    AND    RELIGION. 

dence  at  once  supporting  the  conclusions  as 
to  localization  and  favoring  their  extension  to 
human  nature  is  obtained  by  reference  to  the 
results  of  injury  to  the  nerve  system  at  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body,  and  injury  to  the  brain 
as  ascertained  after  death.  Continuing  ex- 
periments on  the  animals,  it  has  been  shown 
that  even  if  a  portion  of  the  brain  be  cut 
away,  it  is  still  possible  to  operate  on  the 
nerve  lines  in  the  usual  manner  by  means  of 
electricity.  Pushing  experiment  in  this  di- 
rection still  further  it  has  been  found  that 
more  serious  injury  permanently  destroys  the 
centre,  and  entails  paralysis  of  the  muscles 
controlled  by  it  when  in  a  healthy  state.  In 
like  manner  it  has  been  proved  that  if  the 
nerve  itself  be  cut,  the  communication  is  at 
an  end,  and  movement  by  stimulation  has  be- 
come impossible. 

By  perpetually  occurring  cases  of  paralysis 
in  human  experience,  and  careful  examination 
after  death  of  the  exact  situation  and  extent 
of  disease  in  the  brain,  it  has  been  shown  by 
accumulation  of  evidence,  that  the  laws  which 
provide  for  sensibility  and  for  muscular  activ- 
ity in  the  history  of  the  lower  animals,  do  also 
hold  in  the  case  of  man.  While  the  brain  con- 


HIGHER    ORGANISMS.  237 

tinues  in  full  vigor,  all  the  usual  forms  of  sen- 
sibility, and  modes  of  action  are  simple ;  where 
these  have  become  disturbed,  restricted  or  im- 
possible, some  injury  has  been  accidentally  in- 
flicted on  the  brain  of  the  sufferer,  or  disease 
has  begun  in  the  organ,  and  has  gained  a  hold 
exactly  proportionate  to  the  forms  of  restraint 
and  disturbance  which  have  become  outward- 
ly manifest.  These  are  results  which  show 
how  much  is  due  by  way  of  sympathy,  and  pa- 
tience, and  encouragement  to  those  who  suf- 
fer under  any  degree  of  brain  injury  or  dis- 
ease, due  from  all  around  them  whose  conduct 
may  have  any  part  in  determining  their  expe- 
rience. These  results  testify  how  closely  the 
human  organism  stands  allied  to  lower  orders 
of  organism  around;  how  many  homologies  of 
structure  there  are,  and  how  many  analogies 
in  experience.  These  things  declare  that  sci- 
ence has  a  clear  and  unchallangeable  field  of 
inquiry  in  seeking  an  explanation  of  human 
nature  on  the  same  lines  of  procedure  as  those 
which  have  been  followed  in  ascending  the 
scale  of  living  organism.  The  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  materials  at  its  disposal  as  the  result 
of  the  most  recent  investigations  have  now 
been  indicated.  The  problem  is,  How  far  can 


238  SCIENCE  AND    RELIGION. 

the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  human 
frame  account  for  the  facts  of  human  life  ? 
The  strength  and  practical  power  of  religious 
thought  in  the  world  will  depend  upon  the 
answer,  for  science  must  here  carry  some  test 
of  religion.  On  the  other  hand,  the  problem 
which  human  life  presents  is  by  far  the  most 
severe  test  which  science  has  to  encounter. 
In  facing  the  facts,  science  is  engaged  with 
the  settlement  of  its  own  boundaries, — the 
demonstration  of  its  own  limits.  In  facing 
this  highest  problem  which  human  observa- 
tion encounters, — man's  explanation  of  him- 
self,— let  us  cease  from  comparisons  between 
scientific  claims  and  religious,  and  let  us  face 
with  patience  and  resolution  the  question— 
What  is  the  exact  place,  and  what  the  destiny 
of  man,  who  has  piled  up  the  sciences,  and 
midst  the  turmoil  and  conflict  of  life,  has  found 
his  most  elevating  exercise,  and  most  profound 
calm,  in  worship  of  "the  King  eternal,  immor- 
tal, invisible,  the  only  wise  God  "  ? 


LECTURE    VII. 

MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE  WOBLD. 

accumulated  interest  gathered  around 
the  direct  and  collateral  investigations 
bearing  on  the  development  of  species,  has 
naturally  turned  greatly  increased  attention 
on  man's  position  in  the  universe.  As  has 
been  shown  by  study  of  the  nervous  system 
belonging  to  animal  life,  all  organism  has 
been  constructed  on  a  uniform  plan,  advan- 
cing in  complication  as  the  organism  becomes 
more  intricate  in  structure,  having  separate 
parts'  assigned  to  distinct  functions.  This  uni- 
form plan  is  seen  to  culminate  in  man.  Thus 
it  follows,  that  man  appears  to  the  scientific 
observer,  as  the  last  or  most  advanced  figure 
in  a  gradually  ascending  scale.  That  this  is 
man's  place  in  the  field  of  organized  existence 
no  one  will  doubt. 

The  prevailing  view  of  our  nature,  how- 
ever, recognizes  more  in  it  than  bone,  mus- 


240  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

cle,  nerve,  and  cellular  tissue,  while  obser- 
vational science  is  capable  of  recognizing  no 
more  than  these,  so  that,  if  there  be  any 
thing  more,  it  is  quite  beyond  the  range  of 
physical  science,  and  within  the  territory  of 
mental  philosophy.  Here  then,  is  prepara- 
tion for  conflict,  which  may  be  accepted  as 
inevitable,  because  of  the  advance  of  science. 
The  occasion  for  this  expectation  should,  how- 
ever, be  fully  understood.  Its  certainty  may 
be  maintained  on  two  obvious  grounds.  The 
first  is  concerned  with  the  history  of  scien- 
tific progress.  Science  is  pushing  its  way  up 
the  extended  scale  of  existence  with  no  ex- 
act knowledge  of  its  own  limits ;  knowing 
what  its  achievements  have  been,  animated 
to  a  high  degree  by  the  vastness  of  the 
problems  still  before  it,  but  knowing  noth- 
ing quite  definite  as  to  its  own  boundaries. 
The  aggressive  force  of  science  at  such  a  stage 
must  be  great.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
is  a  large  body  of  settled  conviction,  which 
has  swayed  men  and  moulded  society  in  all 
ages,  which  is  an  opposing  force  operating 
on  that  very  line  along  which  science  is 
advancing,  and  which  must  be  encountered 
whenever  man's  place  in  the  universe  be- 


MAN'S  PLACE   IN  THE    WORLD.  241 

comes  the  subject  of  inquiry.  This  opposing 
conviction  is  not  necessarily  religious  in  type, 
though  it  is  supported  by  the  whole  range 
of  thought  concerned  with  the  supernatural. 
The  conviction  here  referred  to,  as  lying 
more  obviously  across  the  path  on  which  sci- 
ence is  travelling,  is  that  concerned  with  the 
personality  of  man,  with  the  rights  and  re- 
sponsibilities of  individuals,  implying  accepted 
conclusions  on  which  the  government,  and  po- 
lice, and  administration  of  affairs  in  every  na- 
tion are  based.  It  must,  then,  be  clearly 
recognized  that  the  conflict  anticipated  as  in- 
evitable is  the  conflict  of  knowledge  of  one 
order,  with  knowledge  of  a  different  order. 
It  is  conflict  of  knowledge  obtained  by  the 
slow  and  difficult  processes  "  available  to  sci- 
ence, with  knowledge  possessed  by  all,  ap- 
plied in  the  regulation  of  individual  and  so- 
cial life,  and  systematized  in  the  annals  of 
mental  philosophy;  or,  we  may  more  nearly 
describe  the  condition  of  matters  by  saying 
that  the  occasion  of  conflict  is  the  deter- 
mination of  science  to  include  all  within  its 
own  area,  rather  than  the  possession  of  actual 
knowledge  as  to  the  highest  order  of  life,  for 
science  is  only  seeking,  and  can  not  profess  to 


242  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

have  found,  an  explanation  of  the  functions 
of  human  life,  as  it  can  profess  to  have  done  in 
the  case  of  lower  orders.  There  could,  there- 
fore, be  no  more  mistaken  representation  of 
the  pending  conflict  than  the  allegation  that 
it  is  a  conflict  of  knowledge  with  ignorance. 
To  put  it  in  the  best  light  for  science,  it  is 
the  conflict  of  one  kind  of  knowledge  with 
another;  but  there  is  a  nearer  approach  to 
accuracy  if  we  say  that  the  conflict  is  occa- 
sioned by  the  want  of  verified  conclusions  with- 
in the  boundaries  of  science  itself,  in  contrast 
with  very  definite  conclusions  belonging  to 
men  generally,  and  verified  by  practical  tests 
which  scientific  men  can  not  refuse.  It  is  not 
essential  to  the  point,  but  may  be  of  conse- 
quence in  view  of  the  range  of  application 
belonging  to  this  inquiry,  to  remark  that 
religious  thought  is  not  itself  directly  in- 
volved here;  nevertheless,  religious  thought 
is  deeply  concerned  in  the  issue  of  the 
conflict. 

Having  thus  briefly  indicated  the  occasion 
of  the  conflict,  and  the  contending  forces,  it 
is  desirable  to  find  the  standpoint  of  science. 
The  nature  and  origin  of  life  having  been 
passed  as  problems  for  which  no  solution  has 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  243 

yet  been  found,  science  has  concentrated  on 
the  functions  of  the  various  portions  of  each 
organism,  and  on  the  contrivances  for  its  pro- 
tection and  continuance  in  the  world;  and  still 
more  in  advance,  on  the  laws  favoring  the 
development  of  species.  From  outward  form 
it  has  passed  to  inward  structure,  and  press- 
ing still  more  closely  towards  the  secrets  of 
life  has  endeavored  to  ascertain  by  micro- 
scopic investigation  what  provision  has  been 
made  for  maintaining  the  vital  processes  in- 
volved in  the  action  of  organism.  Travelling 
up  the  advancing  orders  of  animate  existence, 
science  has  discovered  a  uniform  plan  adapted 
to  varying  complexity  of  structure.  Thus  en- 
tered and  far  advanced  on  the  course  of  in- 
vestigation, science  sees  no  limit  to  its  field 
of  inquiry  save  the  limits  of  organism  itself. 
What  has  already  been  achieved,  gives  full 
warrant  for  the  claim  of  inclusion,  in  which 
all  scientific  men  naturally  concur,  and  with 
which  men  generally  will  readily  agree.  This 
agreement,  however,  lies  on  the  very  boun- 
dary line  of  disagreement  and  dissension.  Im- 
mediately when  an  attempt  is  made  to  set  forth 
what  is  implied,  it  becomes  clear  that  some 
scientific  men  include  very  large  expectations 


244  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

as  to  what  science  is  yet  to  accomplish,  while 
others,  showing  more  of  the  caution  of  the  sci- 
entific spirit,  decline  to  commit  themselves  to 
dogmatic  assertions.  Up  to  the  line  of  agree- 
ment indicated  we  are  dealing  with  science; 
beyond  that  line,  where  we  come  upon  dis- 
agreements, we  are  not  dealing  with  science, 
but  with  the  comparative  sanguineness  or 
caution  of  scientific  men. 

What  we  have  before  us  as  clearly  admit- 
ted on  all  sides  is  that  human  life  presents 
the  common  characteristics  of  organic  life, 
and  is  subjected  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  or- 
ganism. The  problem  with  which  we  have 
now  to  deal  in  view  of  this  admission  is  this, 
— How  far  do  the  functions  of  organism  ac- 
count for  the  universally  recognized  charac- 
teristics of  human  life  ? 

In  facing  this  problem  there  are  not  a  few 
scientific  inquirers  who  look  upon  the  mere 
raising  of  it  as  a  claim  to  include  all  that  be- 
longs to  human  nature  within  the  realm  of 
physical  science.  They  have  allowed  them- 
selves to  regard  the  two  things  as  inter- 
changeable, and  all  their  researches  are  in 
their  view  so  involved  in  this  identification, 
that  they  resent  the  challenging  of  it,  as  if  it 


MAN'S  PLACE   IN   THE    WORLD.  245 

implied  antagonism  to  science.  But  the  sci- 
entific inconsistency  of  this  is  easily  shown. 
That  science  must  extend  its  investigations 
to  human  organism,  admits  of  no  doubt;  that 
by  means  of  this  investigation  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  human  life  will  be  traced  to  or- 
ganism, is  the  very  thing  to  be  proved,  and 
until  established  on  clear  and  full  evidence 
is  not  to  be  regarded  otherwise  than  prob- 
lematic. If  we  are  in  this  matter  to  be  in- 
fluenced by  regard  to  the  slow  and  difficult 
procedure  in  cases  of  much  greater  simpli- 
city, we  shall  be  guarded  in  the  utterance  of 
expectations;  if  we  make  account  of  the  enor- 
mous difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  arrang- 
ing the  facts  to  be  explained,  we  shall  be  still 
more  guarded;  and  if  we  remember  that  the 
practical  demands  of  life  must  all  be  met  day 
by  day  without  waiting  for  science  as  an  aid, 
it  will  not  appear  strange  that  the  non-sci- 
entific thinker  regards  the  whole  scientific  in- 
vestigation as  wide  of  the  sphere  in  which 
questions  of  self-government  are  settled,  even 
though  this  view  seems  to  affirm,  without 
knowledge  of  both  sides,  that  there  is  a 
sphere  belonging  to  human  life  into  which 
science  can  not  enter. 


246  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

Still,  it  must  be  allowed  that  in  the  path- 
way of  science  nothing  is  to  be  foreclosed, 
and  no  area,  whether  large  or  small,  is  to  be 
shut  off  on  which  the  appliances  of  science 
can  be  brought  to  bear.  Science  can  not 
exclude  man  from  the  range  of  investigation; 
can  not  on  any  warrant  supplied  by  the  con- 
ditions of  its  own  procedure,  draw  a  line 
within  the  circumference  of  nature,  even 
though  it  may  be  constrained  to  allow  that 
there  are  many  things  within  nature  of  which 
it  can  offer  no  explanation. 

That  science  has  by  recent  research  done 
much  to  explain  phases  of  human  activity  pre- 
viously unexplained,  may  be  clearly  shown. 
The  modification  of  previously  received  opin- 
ion may  be  indicated  thus, — that  many  forma 
formerly  regarded  as  in  the  true  sense  vol- 
untary, and  so  described  in  the  life  not 
only  of  man,  but  also  of  the  higher  animals, 
can  be  explained  by  the  action  of  brain  and 
nerve.  This  involves  a  considerable  exten- 
sion of  the  area  of  the  mechanical  in  human 
action,  and  a  considerable  restriction  of  the 
area  of  the  voluntary.  In  seeking  to  indi- 
cate roughly  the  form  of  this  restriction,  we 
may  find  enough  for  our  purpose  in  the  dis- 


MAN'S  PLACE   IN  THE    WORLD.  247 

tinction  between  what  we  may  describe  as 
muscular  action,  and  what  we  would  more 
naturally  denominate  personal  conduct.  This 
contrast  will  serve  throughout,  as  we  proceed 
to  estimate  the  explanations  which  science 
has  reached  in  dealing  with  the  characteristics 
of  human  life. 

The  proved  superiority  of  brain  and  nerve 
in  man  affords  an  adequate  explanation  of 
his  generally  recognized  superiority  in  the 
variety  of  the  forms  of  his  muscular  activity. 
In  mere  muscular  power  man  can  not  com- 
pete with  the  more  powerful  animals.  His 
practical  superiority  is  seen  in  manipulation 
and  the  vastly  greater  variety  of  occupations 
to  which  he  can  turn;  and  in  the  greater  wis- 
dom he  has  for  self-government.  Leaving 
meanwhile  out  of  account  comparative  in- 
telligence, we  have  only  to  consider  the  su- 
perior use  man  has  of  the  general  sensibilities 
of  the  body,  and  of  the  special  senses  of  touch 
and  sight;  the  greater  variety  of  the  joints 
and  muscles  in  his  body;  the  more  compli- 
cated arrangements  of  his  nerve  system;  and 
the  relation  of  all  these  in  a  single  economy, 
in  order  to  perceive  a  distinct  phase  of  the 
superiority  of  man,  sufficiently  accounted  for 


248  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

by  clearly  recognized  facts,  anatomical  and 
physiological.  In  a  multitude  of  well-known 
forms  of  action,  of  which  the  mechanical  arts 
afford  illustration,  man  can  do  what  can  not 
be  attempted  by  lower  forms  of  organism. 

Another  step  higher  is  taken  by  the  ad- 
vance of  physiological  science,  involving  an 
explanation  of  acquired  aptitudes.  The  inter- 
action of  sensibility  and  motor  activity  has 
been  shown  to  be  great.  A  message  con- 
veyed along  a  sensory  line  is  readily  trans- 
ferred to  a  motor  line;  the  sense  of  touch  be- 
comes a  natural  guide  to  familiar  forms  of 
action;  a  form  of  sensibility  may  thus  be  con- 
nected with  a  given  range  of  motor  appara- 
tus, just  as  the  history  of  the  blind  illustrates 
how  much  more  can  be  accomplished  by  aid 
of  touch  without  sight,  than  is  ordinarily 
achieved.  By  these  means,  what  at  first  re- 
quires consideration  and  care  (neither  of 
which  is  accounted  for  by  physiological  ex- 
planations), comes  at  last  to  be  done  without 
deliberation,  and  with  so  much  facility,  that 
it  does  not  seem  to  engage  much  attention. 
Physiological  science  thus  accounts  for  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  superior  activity  char- 
acteristic of  man  in  his  daily  engagements. 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  249 

It  must,  however,  be  noticed  that  the  expla- 
nation is  not  a  complete  one,  inasmuch  as  the 
action  of  the  sensory  and  motor  apparatus  re- 
ferred to,  presupposes  consideration  and  care, 
that  is  intellectual  and  voluntary  guidance 
commensurate  with  the  initial  difficulties  of 
attainment,  in  order  that  the  nerve  system 
may  be  brought  to  accomplish  what  becomes 
possible  afterwards  by  mere  mechanical  and 
chemical  contrivance  within  the  living  or- 
ganism. 

Having  thus  briefly  indicated  the  advances 
in  knowledge  of  the  working  of  our  own  or- 
ganism gained  by  recent  research,  and  the 
explanation  thus  afforded  of  much  of  the 
superiority  manifest  in  human  life,  we  come 
upon  the  grand  difficulty  of  science, — How  to 
account  for  intellectual  superiority.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  animals  give  proofs  of  intelligence 
as  well  as  men;  and  that  the  human  brain 
has  a  marked  superiority  in  the  frontal  re- 
gion, to  which  intelligence  is  commonly  re- 
ferred, as  it  certainly  is  superior  also  in  the 
back  part  of  the  organ,  to  which  intelligence 
is  not  so  commonly  referred.  But  the  press- 
ing difficulty  is  this,  to  show  how  nerve  cells, 
confessedly  concerned  with  the  development 


250  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

of  nerve  energy,  and  the  production  of  sen- 
sory and  motor  activity,  can  be  further  con- 
sidered capable  of  performing  the  function  of 
thought,  covering  the  whole  variety  of  men- 
tal occupations.  Attention  has  been  directed 
to  the  recognized  diversities  of  nerve  cells, 
which  are  unipolar,  bipolar,  and  multipolar, 
on  the  hypothesis  that  these  diversities  may 
point  to  differences  of  function  so  great  as  to 
provide  what  is  required.  But  there  is  a 
total  failure  of  evidence  to  substantiate  this 
hypothesis.  The  differences  among  the  nerve 
cells  of  the  brain  are  differences  in  size,  and 
in  the  number  of  the  lines  of  communication 
taking  rise  from  them.  In  accordance  with 
the  plan  of  arrangement  everywhere  recog- 
nized, the  number  of  protoplasmic  lines  orig- 
inating from  a  cell  gives  an  index  to  the 
points  of  contact  it  has  in  the  surrounding 
tissue,  and  thus  to  the  part  it  may  perform 
in  the  work  of  coordination  or  interaction. 
A  small  cell  with  only  a  single  line  or  fibre 
proceeding  from  it,  must  be  regarded  as  a 
cell  conveying  nerve  stimulus  in  only  a  sin- 
gle direction,  and  to  only  a  single  destination. 
A  bipolar  cell  in  accordance  with  the  same 
rule  of  interpretation,  is  a  cell  having  com- 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  251 

munication  in  two  opposite  directions,  and 
thus  may  be  capable  of  transmitting  stimulus 
by  the  one  channel  or  by  the  other,  besides 
which  it  is  possible,  so  far  as  structure  is  con- 
cerned, that  such  a  cell  may  receive  stimulus 
from  one  direction  and  send  it  forth  in  an 
opposite,  thus  proving  a  centre  of  intercom- 
munication. On  the  same  plan,  a  multipolar 
cell,  being  of  greater  size,  and  having  from 
five  to  ten  fibres  proceeding  from  it,  holds  a 
more  important  place  in  the  manifold  ramifi- 
cations of  cellular  tissue,  sending  out  stimu- 
lus in  an  increased  variety  of  courses  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  the  lines  pertaining  to 
it,  and  proving  thus  an  intermediate  station 
in  communication  with  a  variety  of  distinct 
centres.  No  observation  yet  directed  upon 
the  nerve  cells  has  proved  sufficient  to  estab- 
lish all  this,  but  the  supposition  is  in  strict 
harmony  with  what  has  been  ascertained  as 
to  the  laws  governing  the  action  of  the  nerve 
system. 

When,  however,  an  attempt  is  made  to 
proceed  farther,  selecting  the  largest  cells  as 
"  mind  cells,"  *  or  cells  generating  thought 
and  volition,  there  is  a  complete  break  away 

*  Heeckel's  Evolution  of  Man,  vol.  i.  p.  129. 


252  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

from  evidence,  and  from  the  clear  lines  of 
interpretation  already  established.  We  are 
dealing  with  conjecture,  not  with  science. 
There  is  no  reason  in  the  interests  of  truth 
to  object  to  hypothesis  in  this  region,  any 
more  than  in  another,  for  conjecture  has 
often  proved  the  handmaid  of  discovery, 
and  it  is  likely  to  be  so  in  a  still  larger 
degree.  But  an  essential  condition  of  this 
acknowledgment  is,  that  conjecture  do  not 
claim  any  respect  beyond  what  its  nature 
warrants,  and  specially  do  not  take  to  itself 
the  name  of  science, — knowledge,  or  certain- 
ty. Beyond  this,  it  must  be  recognized  in 
every  intelligent  circle,  that  conjectures,  like 
men  of  different  character,  are  entitled  to 
different  degrees  of  respect,  some  to  only  a 
moderate  and  guarded  measure,  others  to  a 
very  high  degree,  and  some  to  very  little 
indeed.  In  a  case  like  the  present,  we  can 
have  no  sure  test  for  a  provisional  judg- 
ment entitled  to  regulate  provisional  proce- 
dure, other  than  the  harmony  of  the  con- 
jecture with  scientific  knowledge  already 
acquired  as  to  the  same  region  of  exist- 
ence. .Judged  by  this  test,  the  conjecture 
that  the  intellectual  life  of  man  is  to  be 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  253 

accounted  for  by  the  presence  in  the  brain 
of  myriads  of  thought  cells,  volitional  cells, 
memory  cells,  imagination  cells,  and  emo- 
tional cells,  has  little  on  which  to  claim  a 
high  degree  of  consideration.  Its  most  ob- 
vious scientific  difficulties  are  these  two,  that 
it  implies  a  departure  from  the  scheme  of 
brain  action  scientifically  established,  and 
that  it  passes  away  from  the  scientific  ap- 
pliances employed  to  obtain  knowledge  of 
brain  action.  The  real  discoveries  which 
have  been  made  are  the  existence  of  sen- 
sory and  motor  apparatus,  and  the  inter- 
action of  these  two  branches  or  divisions  of 
the  system.  Beyond  this,  science  has  made 
no  advance.  The  scientific  appliances  by 
which  these  discoveries  have  been  reached 
are  those  available  in  post-mortem  dissec- 
tion, and  in  experiment  under  such  exposure 
of  the  brain  tissue  as  has  been  found  com- 
patible with  functional  activity. of  the  organ. 
This  conjecture  of  "mind-cells"  does  not  eith- 
er experimentally  or  logically  connect  itself 
with  the  recent  advances  in  knowledge  of 
the  brain.  The  system  of  sensory  and  motor 
apparatus  spread  over  the  body  for  which 
the  brain  is  the  great  central  and  govern- 


254  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

ing  organ  does  not  under  the  scientific  ex- 
planation of  it  already  obtained,  lead  on  by 
natural  sequence  to  the  conjecture  of  addi- 
tional and  greatly  higher  functions  being  as- 
signed to  the  brain.  Besides,  the  suggestion 
that  place  should  be  found  in  the  brain  for 
something  more  and  higher  than  sensori-motor 
activity,  does  not  come  from  any  necessity 
which  has  arisen  in  the  course  of  scientific 
observation.  It  is  only  because  we  know,  in 
a  manner  quite  different  from  that  in  which 
scientific  knowledge  of  nerve  and  brain  has 
been  acquired',  that  man  does  observe,  and 
reason,  construct  hypotheses  and  cherish  ex- 
pectations, contemplate  rules  of  conduct  and 
regulate  his  actions  in  accordance  with  them, 
that  scientific  inquirers,  attempting  to  in- 
clude the  whole  range  of  human  powers, 
have  felt  themselves  urged  forward  to  seek 
an  explanation  of  the  characteristics  of  men- 
tal life  which  are  the  familiar  facts  of  man's 
experience.  The  course  of  experiment  has 
not  brought  them  up  to  these  facts ;  com- 
mon acquaintance  with  them  has  pressed  on 
scientific  inquirers  the  need  for  dealing  with 
them  in  order  to  make  good  the  claim  that 
science  contains  the  explanation  of  all  ex- 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  255 

istence,  man  included.  The  dilemma  for  this 
conjecture  that  the  brain  thinks  and  wills  is 
serious.  If  the  brain  is  capable  of  what  is 
commonly  named  mental  activity,  all  that  sci- 
ence has  demonstrated  is  susceptibility  and 
motor  activity,  that  is  nerve  impulse  involv- 
ing molecular  and  muscular  action,  and  this 
carries  no  explanation  of  mental  action. 

In  this,  as  in  previous  cases,  it  is  better  to 
take  purely  scientific  statements  concerning 
the  structure  and  functions  of  the  nerve  cells, 
without  regard  to  theoretical  result.  The  fol- 
lowing quotations  will  show  what  account  has 
been  given  of  the  variety  of  appearance  and 
position  of  the  nerve  cells.  Professor  Turner 
says,  nerve  cells  are  "the  characteristic  struc- 
tures in  the  nerve  centres,  are  susceptible  to 
impressions  or  nervous  impulses,  and  are  the 
texture  in  which  the  molecular  changes  oc- 
cur that  produce  or  disengage  the  special 
form  of  energy  named  nerve  energy,  the 
evolution  of  which  is  the  distinctive  mark  of 
a  nerve  centre."  *  "  The  central  extremities 
of  the  nerve  fibres  lie  in  relation  to,  and  are 
often  directly  connected  with  the  nerve  cells." 
From  opposite  points  of  the  surface  of  the  bi- 

*  Human  Anatomy,  i.  p.  198. 


256  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

polar  cell  "a  strong  process  is  given  off,  which 
is  directly  continued  into  a  nerve  fibre.  *  ' 
When  we  pass  next  to  multipolar  ceils,  we  have 
the  following  explanations.  "  In  many  local- 
ities they  present  characteristic  forms.  In  the 
gray  matter  of  the  spinal  cord,  more  espe- 
cially in  its  anterior  horn,f  they  give  rise  to 
numerous  processes,  and  have  a  stellate  or 
radiate  form.  In  the  gray  matter  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  convolutions  of  the  cerebrum  they 
are  pyramidal  in  shape;  the  apex  is  directed 
to  the  surface  of  the  convolution,  the  base 
towards  the  white  matter;  the  processes  arise 
from  the  base,  apex,  and  sides  of  the  pyra- 
mid." J  "  The  processes  which  arise  from  a 
multipolar  nerve  cell  as  a  rule  divide  and  sub- 
divide as  they  pass  away  from  the  body  of 
the  cell,  until  at  last  they  give  rise  to  branches 
of  extreme  tenuity.  These  branching  pro- 
cesses apparently  consist  exclusively  of  cell 
protoplasm,  and  have  been  called  protoplasm 
processes.  Gerlach  has  described  the  proto- 
plasm processes  of  the  multipolar  nerve  cells 
of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  as  forming  an 
excessively  minute  net-work,  from  which  mi- 

*  Human  Anatomy,  i.  p.  199. 

t  From  which  motor  nerves  emerge.     \  Human  Anal,  i.  p.  200. 


MAN'S  PLACE   IN    THE    WORLD.  257 

mite  medullated  nerve  fibres  arise."*  "From 
the  observations  of  Lockhart  Clark,  Arndt, 
Cleland  and  Meynert,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  pyramidal  nerve  cells  vary  in  rel- 
ative size  and  in  numbers  in  the  different 
layers  of  the  gray  cortex,  and  that  the  largest 
sized  pyramidal  cells  lie  in  the  third  and 
fourth  layers."  f  "  Large  pyramidal  cells  are 
found  in  the  frontal  lobe  in  considerable  num- 
bers," but  it  is  added,  ''there  is  no  difficulty 
in  recognizing  in  the  occipital  lobe "  (the 
back  region  of  the  brain)  "  a  small  propor- 
tion of  cells  quite  equal  in  magnitude  to  the 
largest  cells  of  the  frontal  lobe."  J 

From  these  statements,  it  is  easy  to  judge 
what  value  can  be  attached  to  the  conjecture 
that  multipolar  or  pyramidal  cells  are  to  be 
regarded  as  " mind-cells"  The  result  may 
be  summarized  thus;  (1)  The  larger  cells  are 
invariably  distinguished  by  the  number  of 
fibres  given  off,  or  the  lines  of  communication 
they  have  with  other  parts  of  the  tissue;  (2) 
As  to  distribution  of  these  cell-fibres  appear- 
ing in  the  brain,  it  is  found  that  as  the  cells 
themselves  are  in  the  lower  strata  of  the  gray 
matter,  the  majority  of  their  fibres  stretch 

*  Human  Anat.,  t  p.  201.     f  I1>-  P-  282.     J  See  Appendix  XIL 


258  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

downwards,  the  mass  of  the  nerve  fibres  thus 
communicating  with  the  organism;  (3)  These 
pyramidal  cells  are  not  peculiar  to  any  part 
of  the  brain,  and  they  do  not  belong  to  the 
brain  alone,  but  are  found  in  the  gray  matter 
of  the  spinal  cord,  and  also  of  the  sympa- 
thetic system,  which  provides  for  the  action 
of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  other  vital  organs. 
All  these  characteristics  are  adverse  to  the 
conjecture  that  for  the  larger  sized  cells  a 
claim  can  be  made  assigning  to  them  dis- 
tinctively intellectual  or  mental  functions. 

In  contrast  with  this  view,  I  shall  here  in- 
troduce an  extract  from  Haeckel's  Evolution 
of  Man,  as  he  may  be  accounted  the  most 
advanced  advocate  of  the  theory  of  "mind- 
cells."  He  says, — "The  nerve  cell  of  the 
brain  is  an  extremely  one-sided  formation. 
It  can  not,  like  the  egg-cell,  develop  from 
itself  numerous  generations  of  cells,  of  which 
some  transform  themselves  into  skin-cells, 
some  into  flesh-cells,  and  others  into  bone- 
cells,  etc.  But  instead,  the  nerve-cell,  which 
is  formed  for  the  highest  activities  of  life, 
possesses  the  capacity  to  feel,  to  will,  to 
think.  It  is  a  true  mind-cell,  an  elementary 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  259 

organ  of  mental  activity.  Correspondingly, 
it  has  an  extremely  complex  minute  struct- 
ure. Innumerable  filaments  of  exceeding  fine- 
ness, which  may  be  compared  to  the  numer- 
ous electric  wires  of  a  great  central  telegraph 
station,  traverse  (crossing  each  other  again 
and  again),  the  finely  granulated  protoplasm 
of  the  nerve-cell,  and  pass  into  branched 
processes,  which  proceed  from  this  mind-cell, 
and  connect  with  other  nerve-cells  and  nerve- 
fibres.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  trace,  even 
approximately,  the  tangled  paths  of  these  fil- 
aments in  the  fine  substance  of  the  protoplas- 
mic body.  We  thus  have  before  us  a  highly 
complex  apparatus,  the  more  minute  struct- 
ure of  which  we  have  hardly  begun  to  know, 
even  with  the  help  of  our  strongest  micro- 
scope, and  the  significance  of  which  we  rather 
guess  than  know.  Its  complex  mechanism 
is  capable  of  the  most  intricate  physical 
functions.  But  even  this  elementary  organ 
of  mental  activity,  of  which  there  are  thous- 
ands in  our  brain,  is  only  a  single  cell.  Our 
whole  intellectual  life  is  but  the  sum  of 
the  results  of  all  such  nerve-cells,  or  mind- 
cells."  * 

*  Evolution  of  Man,  i.  p.  129. 


260  SCIENCE  AND   RELIGION. 

From  this  passage  it  will  be  seen  that  as- 
certained facts  are  given  in  harmony  with 
previous  descriptions;  but  that  while  naming 
some  as  sensory,  others  as  motor,  there  is  no 
distinct  evidence  for  classifying  certain  cells 
as  "  mind-cells.'7  Along  with  the  admission 
of  our  comparative  ignorance  of  the  minute 
structure  of  the  cell,  is  the  assertion  that  this 
cell  "  possesses  the  capacity  to  feel,  to  will, 
to  think."  This  latter  statement  is  advanced 
without  any  trace  of  scientific  evidence,  and 
has  no  better  substratum  on  which  to  rest 
than  the  admission  that  man  not  only  feels, 
but  also  thinks  and  wills.  Further,  when  we 
recall  the  singular  variety  of  situation  in 
which  these  cells  are  found,  as  they  he  within 
the  spinal  canal,  subordinate  centres,  and  the 
brain,  the  insufficiency  of  the  whole  theory 
of  "  mind-cells  "  is  apparent.  Still  more  con- 
spicuous does  this  become  when  we  turn  to 
Hseckel's  illustrative  diagram,  and  read  under- 
neath it  this  description, — ' '  A  large  branched 
nerve-cell,  or  '  mind-cell '  from  the  brain  of  an 
electric  fish."  The  investigator  who  makes  in 
the  directest  manner  statements  as  to  think- 
ing and  willing,  which  he  has  not  verified  and 
can  not  verify;  and  who  with  undisturbed 


MAWS  PLACE   IN  THE    WORLD.  261 

composure  of  mind  proceeds  to  illustrate  and 
support  his  position  by  giving  a  drawing  of 
the  "mind-cell  of  an  electric  fish/7  does  al- 
most every  thing  that  can  be  done  to  dis- 
credit his  testimony  on  scientific  subjects. 

Having  now  set  forth  the  grounds  on  which 
I  think  it  clearly  shown  that  physiological 
science  has  done  no  more  than  identify  sen- 
sory and  motor  cells;  and  that  the  search  for 
the  true  "  mind-cell "  has  proved  a  failure; 
I  pass  from  this  division  of  the  subject  with 
the  acknowledgment  that  the  front  and  back 
portions  of  the  brain  still  present  area  for 
fresh  research,  and  to  this  must  be  added  the 
striking  fact  that  in  all  the  brains  subjected 
to  electric  excitation  these  two  portions  have 
uniformly  remained  silent.  These  considera- 
tions may  possibly  hereafter  afford  valuable 
suggestions  towards  guidance  of  the  work  yet 
to  be  done  in  the  investigation  of  brain  struct- 
ure and  functions. 

In  view  of  the  limits  of  the  present  discus- 
sion, I  shall  at  this  point  pass  over  at  once 
and  directly  to  the  region  concerned  with  the 
government  of  human  conduct,  with  the  view  of 
illustrating  in  what  respects  human  life  differs 
from  merely  animal  life.  On  this  single  test, 


262  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

I  must  here  be  content  to  rest  an  argument 
for  the  insufficiency  of  physiology,  and  the 
necessity  for  observation  of  our  own  experi- 
ence, if  we  are  to  have  an  intelligible  ac- 
count of  the  most  familiar  characteristics  of 
human  life.  By  way  of  securing  a  sharp  con- 
trast serviceable  for  illustrative  and  argument- 
ative purposes,  'I  take  an  extract  from  Mr. 
Darwin.  His  statement  is  this, — "  There  is 
no  evidence  that  any  animal  performs  an  ac- 
tion for  the  exclusive  good  of  another."  * 
Alongside  of  this  statement,  for  the  purpose 
of  comparison  and  contrast,  let  me  place  this. 
It  is  an  essential  law  of  human  life,  having 
daily  application,  that  man  shall  so  act  as  to 
make  the  good  of  his  fellowman  the  express 
end  of  his  action.  This  is  a  law  of  moral  life 
which  we  do  not  dream  of  applying  to  any 
lower  order  of  beings,  but  which  we  do  regard 
as  binding  on  all  men  equally.  Explicit  testi- 
mony to  this  law  of  human  life  may  be  drawn 
from  the  philosophy  of  Greece  and  of  China 
in  times  so  remote  as  to  precede  the  Christian 
era,  or  from  the  teaching  of  our  Saviour,  or 
from  the  daily  life  of  men  in  any  land  in  this 
nineteenth  century.  The  contrast  is  thus  sharp 

*  Origin  of  Species,  6th  ed.  p.  208. 


MAN'S  PLACE   IN  THE    WORLD.  263 

enough,  and  it  presents  the  most  perplexing 
difficulty  for  physiologists  of  the  school  of 
Haeckel ;  while  it  affords  the  strongest  line 
of  evidence  for  that  philosophy  which  ac- 
counts for  the  higher  characteristics  of  hu- 
man life  by  reference  to  mind  as  distinct  from 
brain,  and  immeasurably  higher  in  function. 

Whether  Mr.  Darwin's  account  of  animal 
conduct  will  be  uniformly  accepted  by  natu- 
ralists, need  not  concern  us,  as  the  possi- 
bility of  dissension  would  not  seriously  af- 
fect the  argument,  the  main  stress  of  which 
must  fall  on  these  two  points,  that  the  law  of 
pure  benevolence  is  a  law  of  human  life,  and 
that  the  mere  recognition  of  this  law  (I  do 
not  say  obedience  to  it,  which  is  a  stage  further 
in  advance),  can  not  be  included  within  the 
functions  of  brain.* 

From  what  has  been  written  by  some  natu- 
ralists as  to  the  "  benevolence  "  of  animals,  it 
is  probable  that  some  may  be  prepared  to 
take  exception  to  the  statement  of  Mr.  Dar- 
win. There  is  no  need  for  here  entering  upon 
discussion  which  might  thus  be  raised,  and 
which  would  entail  the  task  of  criticising  mul- 

*  Whether  some  of  the  animals  may  possess  an  inferior  order 
of  mind,  is  a  question  which  need  not  be  here  discussed. 


264  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

titudes  of  statements  made  in  a  singularly 
loose  and  unscientific  manner.  There  is  not 
any  more  careful  observer  than  Mr.  Darwin, 
the  whole  record  of  whose  observations  gives 
confidence  in  his  testimony,  and  his  patient 
reflection  on  the  real  significance  of  what  he 
has  seen.  We  may,  however,  leave  this  mat- 
ter to  naturalists,  that  they  may  decide  wheth- 
er this  conclusion  as  to  animals  requires  some 
modification.  The  purpose  of  the  present  ar- 
gument is  to  show  that  an  authoritative  law 
of  benevolence  does  apply  to  human  life,  in 
direct  contrast  with  the  ordinary  law  of  ani- 
mal life,  giving  special  force  to  the  strug- 
gle for  existence  as  witnessed  in  the  history 
of  the  lower  orders  of  beings. 

One  possible  entanglement  for  the  pres- 
ent argument  must,  however,  be  carefully 
shunned.  In  the  comparison  between  man 
and  animal,  we  are  apt  to  diverge  into  a  dis- 
cussion of  what  men  and  animals  severally  do. 
This  is  a  question  considerably  different  from 
that  now  under  discussion,  and  yet  it  lies  in 
such  close  proximity  as  to  afford  the  greatest 
facilities  for  confusion  of  thought.  We  are 
not  'here  comparing  what  animals  do,  with 
what  men  do;  we  are  comparing  the  ac- 


MAWS  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  265 

tions  of  animals  with  what  we  know  men 
ought  to  do.  It  is  this  question  of  ought  which 
appears  as  the  outstanding  and  distinguishing 
feature  in  human  life,  on  which  we  are  now 
seeking  to  direct  attention  with  all  the  con- 
centration which  physiologists  secure  when 
the  microscope  is  directed  on  brain  tissue. 
The  true  feature  here  is  elevation  and  com- 
plexity of  intellectual  action,  and  the  possibility 
of  assigning  this  to  brain  action.  The  ques- 
tion is  no  doubt  concerned  with  conduct  both 
in  the  animal,  and  in  man, — but  what  we 
wish  to  ascertain  is,  how  far  action  or  con- 
duct in  the  two  cases  throws  light  on  the  ex- 
ercise of  intelligence  possible  to  man  and  to 
animal.  It  is  admitted  that  to  act  on  a  law 
of  benevolence  requires  a  higher  exercise  of 
intelligence,  than  to  act  under  a  law  of  desire 
or  sensitive  impulse ;  and  we  wish  to  reach 
definite  conclusions  on  two  points ;  first,  and 
subordinately,  whether  animals  ever  act  on 
the  higher  law ;  second,  and  chiefly,  whether 
such  action  does  not  involve  as  its  condition 
an  intellectual  exercise  of  a  higher  order  than 
can  be  assigned  to  brain.  The  former  of 
these  questions,  subordinate  to  the  present 
inquiry,  may  be  left  to  naturalists.  The  sec- 


266  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

ond  concerns  us  directly  here,  in  the  more 
important  discussion  as  to  man. 

With  the  view  of  completing  the  defence 
against  disturbing  entanglement,  it  may  be 
well  further  to  insert  here  the  explicit  state- 
ment that  men  do  very  commonly  act  in  neg- 
lect of  the  law  of  benevolence,  and  even  in 
violation  of  it.  The  fact  is  too  well  known 
in  society  to  be  overlooked.  It  may  be 
enough,  however,  in  the  present  connection, 
to  admit  that  men  do  often  act  like  the  ani- 
mals; or,  to  state  the  fact  more  precisely  in 
form,  the  animal  nature  is  often  found  gov- 
erning men,  so  as  to  make  their  action  re- 
semble that  of  the  lower  animals  in  the  strug- 
gle for  existence. 

These  lines  of  severance  will  now  make 
clear  what  is  our  main  question, — Is  man 
capable  of  recognizing  a  higher  law  of  life  ? 
Does  a  law  of  benevolence  apply  to  him  as 
a  rational  creature,  as  it  can  not  apply  in 
the  history  of  the  animals  around  us  ?  And 
if  this  question  be  answered  in  the  affirma- 
tive, does  such  answer  imply  the  exercise 
of  a  higher  power  than  can  be  scientifically 
assigned  to  brain  cells? 

That   man    recognizes    a   law    of   benevo- 


MAN^S  PLACE  IN  THE   WORLD.  267 

lence  as  determining  personal  conduct  will 
not  be  formally  disputed  by  any  one.  Yet 
so  very  much  bearing  on  the  present  argu- 
ment is  involved  in  the  interpretation  to  be 
assigned  to  this  admission,  that  it  is  desir- 
able to  present  at  least  in  outline,  the  evi- 
dence on  which  the  statement  rests.  If  we 
look  at  the  facts  in  view  of  the  ordinary 
actions  of  the  lower  animals,  a  series  of 
contrasts  is  presented.  The  animals  are 
seen  to  compete  with  each  other  for  what 
is  a  common  object  of  desire,  such  as  a  fa- 
vorite article  of  food;  and  to  fight  with  each 
other  for  possession;  the  consequence  is  that 
the  strongest  and  most  daring  get  what  they 
seek,  while  the  weaker  and  more  timid  must 
be  content  with  what  is  of  less  value  for  grat- 
ification of  their  desire.  These  facts  are  so 
conspicuous  and  so  constant  in  their  influ- 
ence on  the  whole  race  of  animals  that  the 
theory  of  the  origin  of  species  by  descent 
founds  upon  them.  A  complete  contrast  ap- 
pears in  what  man  recognizes  as  the  rule  of 
his  conduct,  when  he  admits  the  obligation 
to  benevolence.  There  is  a  reflective  exer- 
cise concerned  with  the  right  and  wrong  in 


268  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

human  conduct  which  regards  it  as  a  wrong 
thing  for  a  man  to  snatch  from  another  the 
enjoyment  within  his  reach,  or  subvert  his 
opportunity  for  happiness  in  order  to  in- 
crease his  own  pleasure.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  is  an  exercise  of  thought  which  con- 
templates effort  for  the  good  of  others  as 
right,  even  extending  the  application  of 
this  law  of  moral  life  so  far  as  to  require 
self-denial,  and,  in  circumstances  of  special 
importance,  self-sacrifice,  for  the  good  of 
others.  These  are  facts  so  elementary,  that 
the  statement  of  them  would  be  felt  to  be 
uncalled  for,  were  we  not  seeking  to  dis- 
tinguish the  elements  of  our  ordinary  expe- 
rience. In  accordance  with  what  has  been 
said,  we  are  agreed  in  regarding  it  as  a 
wrong  done  to  another  if  we  deprive  him 
of  enjoyment  simply  for  the  sake  of  our 
own  satisfaction.  Such  conduct  is  what  we 
condemn  as  selfishness  in  the  agent,  and  a 
wrong  to  the  sufferer.  When  on  the  con- 
trary we  subordinate  personal  pleasure  in 
order  to  secure  the  happiness  of  another, 
we  commend  the  benevolent  disposition  in 
which  the  act  originates,  and  we  honor  at- 
tention shown  to  the  rights  of  a  fellowman. 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE   WORLD.  269 

As  the  contrary  lines  of  conduct  are  so  often 
followed,  and  even  vindicated  as  permis- 
sible in  the  competitions  of  life,  we  need 
to  show  with  some  care  that  the  law 'of  be- 
nevolence is  uniformly  regarded  as  a  law  of 
human  conduct  even  when  its  requirements 
are  unfulfilled.  This  becomes  obvious  if  we 
look  along  another  line  of  observation.  If 
we  pass  from  what  a  man  does  to  his  fel- 
lowmen  to  what  he  is  seen  to  expect  of 
them,  we  at  once  perceive  that  the  authori- 
tative feature  alleged  to  belong  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  benevolence  is  admitted  by  him.  He 
resents  the  selfishness  from  which  he  has  suf- 
fered, complains  of  the  unmanly  act  which 
found  its  pleasure  in  his  injury,  and  an  ap- 
peal to  public  opinion,  on  any  occasion  suffi- 
ciently important  to  involve  a  question  of 
the  interests  of  society,  at  once  calls  forth 
general  condemnation  of  the  selfish  act  as  a 
real  injustice. 

That  such  a  form  and  direction  of  thought 
belongs  naturally  to  man  has  been  further 
shown  by  the  ready  assent  of  the  young  to 
the  law  of  benevolence,  and  their  unhes- 
itating test  of  their  seniors  by  reference  to 
it.  If  their  irritability  and  resentment  have 


270  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

been  stirred,  it  may  be  difficult  to  gain  their 
assent  to  the  special  application  of  the  law  of 
benevolence  in  the  circumstances.  This,  how- 
ever, is  only  an  example  in  early  life,  of  what 
we  find  in  more  advanced  years,  that  it  is 
hard  to  do  the  right,  and  easy  to  excuse  the 
wrong  we  do,  while  resenting  the  wrong  done 
to  us.  But,  apart  from  exciting  causes,  and 
simply  in  the  exercise  of  a  quiet  reflection, 
the  child  recognizes  the  duty  of  benevolence; 
and,  notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  of 
weakness  and  inexperience,  proceeds  to  test 
others  by  this  standard,  and  is  felt  by  others 
to  be  powerful  by  reason  of  the  force  belong- 
ing to  the  law,  however  superior  in  years, 
and  in  authority  may  be  the  persons  of  whom 
the  child  expects  that  he  be  kindly  treated. 
These  are  in  very  condensed  form  the  facts 
of  human  life,  which  are  as  outstanding  as 
the  contrary  facts  insisted  upon  as  charac- 
teristic of  animal  life.  We  need  an  expla- 
nation which  shall  put  the  nature  of  man  as 
truly  in  contrast  with  the  nature  of  the  ani- 
imal,  while  it  is  at  the  same  time  allowed 
that  man  has  an  animal  nature  which  may 
operate  to  the  influence  of  his  conduct,  in 
neglect  of  this  higher  law  of  intelligence. 


MAWS  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  271 

Now  the  most  advanced  results  of  physio- 
logical science  carry  no  explanation  of  this 
simple,  ordinary  fact,  man's  recognition  of 
a  law  of  benevolence  as  authoritative.  After 
we  have  assigned  full  value  to  the  sensibil- 
ities of  a  physical  nature  overspread  with  a 
sensitive  nerve-system;  after  we  have  made 
account  of  the  motor  activity  possible  to  an 
animal  possessed  of  a  complicated  muscular 
system  controlled  by  motor  nerves,  we  have 
not  come  near  a  region  in  which  the  reflective 
process  takes  place  which  applies  the  law  of 
benevolence  for  the  regulation  of  conduct. 
We  discover  within  the  range  of  physiological 
possibility,  sensitiveness  to  impression  from 
without,  and  to  the  influence  of  the  cravings 
and  appetites  of  a  nature  requiring  support 
and  satisfaction,  and  impelling  power  which 
urges  to  action  for  the  sake  of  present  satis- 
faction. All  these  things  we  find  easily  ex- 
plained under  the  teaching  of  physiology;  but 
we  have  no  explanation  of  the  act  of  intelli- 
gence in  perceiving  a  law  of  benevolence  and 
owning  submission  to  it.  We  do  not  even  find 
a  scientific  account  of  the  subordinate  intel- 
lectual exercises  involved  in  the  application 
of  the  law  of  benevolence  when  recognized. 


272  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

There  is  a  form  of  discrimination  here,  includ- 
ing the  distinction  of  men  as  persons,  the 
claims  involved  in  personal  rights,  and  the 
phase  of  individual  duty  ascertained  while  con- 
templating the  circumstances  in  the  midst  of 
which  it  is  needful  to  act.  All  this  is  outside 
the  range  of  the  formulated  results  of  physio- 
logical research.  There  can  be  no  hesitation 
in  accepting  all  that  has  been  established  as 
to  nerve-sensibility, — the  subjection  of  human 
life  to  the  interaction  of  external  influences, — 
and  the  inevitable  forms  of  experience  which 
result  in  individual  history.  But  we  see  in 
these,  only  conditions  in  the  midst  of  which 
man  by  exercise  of  his  intelligence  is  to  un- 
dertake the  management  of  life  on  a  higher 
level  than  that  of  animal  life.  We  clearly 
recognize  the  laws  of  motor  activity,  includ- 
ing the  full  bearing  of  outward  influences, 
and  inward  tendencies  upon  human  action. 
But  with  these  things  we  see  what  is  meant 
when  it  is  recognized  that  intellect  must  gov- 
ern passion:  while  we  see  physiological  sci- 
ence laying  open  to  us  only  the  laws  of  pas- 
sion, and  not  the  law  for  its  government. 
We  admit  the  convincing  nature  of  the  evi- 
dence by  which  it  is  shown  that  our  nature 


MAN'S  PLACE  IN  THE    WORLD.  273 

with  all  the  special  phases  of  individuality, 
often  involving  strange  perils  and  perplexi- 
ties, has  been  inherited  by  us,  gathering 
within  the  boundaries  of  our  life  a  task 
which  we  would  willingly  have  shunned.  We 
perceive  in  this  a  science  of  the  specialities 
of  individual  nature,  standing  alongside  the 
science  explaining  the  common  character- 
istics of  man  which  come  within  the  range 
of  physiological  research.  But  it  is  beyond 
this,  that  the  problem  arises  concerning  the 
moral  government  of  life,  so  that  equally 
what  is  common,  and  what  is  peculiar  to  man 
shall  be  regulated  according  to  rational  law. 
For  this  all  see  to  be  true,  excepting  al- 
ways cases  of  manifest  infirmity  and  disorder, 
that  equally  the  common  and  the  special 
powers  of  the  individual  are  to  be  regulated 
by  the  law  of  benevolence.  There  are  no 
exemptions  for  special  temperament,  what- 
ever diversities  there  may  be  in  the  task 
which  application  of  the  law  may  involve  for 
;some.  The  ought  has  ascendency  over  hu- 
man life ;  *  the  bare  perception  of  this  grand 
reality,  taken  with  all  the  distinctions  in- 
volved in  its  application  to  personal  conduct, 

*  See  Appendix  *TTT. 


274  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

and  all  the  forms  of  personal  control  exer- 
cised for  its  fulfilment,  lies  apart  from  the 
discoveries  of  physiology.  In  these  things 
we  see  most  clearly  what  mind  is,  and  what 
mind  does  in  the  management  of  human  life. 
We  discover  clearly  thus  what  it  is  which 
makes  human  life  superior  to  the  life  of  the 
animals  around  us;  what  it  is  which  makes 
the  best  in  human  life  stand  essentially  con- 
nected with  the  subordination  of  the  animal 
nature  to  a  higher  nature  within;  and  in 
what  respect  it  stands  true  that  physiology  is 
a  science  of  only  a  part  of  our  nature,  and 
that  the  lower,  because  the  subject  part.  In 
this  man  knows,  apart  from  all  science,  and 
quite  independently  of  philosophy  too,  that 
he  has  a  higher  life,  working,  rejoicing,  and 
advancing  to  nobler  excellence,  just  as  he 
governs  his  body,  keeping  it  in  subjection, 
while  revering  an  ideal  of  moral  and  spiritual 
excellence  towards  the  attainment  of  which 
it  is  the  duty  and  honor  of  humanity  to  strive. 


LECTURE   VIII. 

EELATION  OF  SCIENCE  TO   OUE  CONCEPTIONS 

OF  DIVINE  INTERPOSITION  FOE  MORAL 

GOVERNMENT  IN  THE  WORLD. 


~**HE  view  given  in  previous  lectures  of  the 
most  prominent  features  of  the  recent 
advances  in  scientific  knowledge  most  inti- 
mately concerning  our  religious  conceptions 
of  the  origin  and  government  of  the  world, 
may  afford  some  aid  towards  forming  a  judg- 
ment of  the  points  of  contact  and  apparent 
conflict.  A  brief  summary  will  afford  the 
best  introduction  to  the  lines  of  inquiry  with 
which  the  present  discussion  may  be  brought 
to  a  close. 

First,  as  to  the  inorganic  in  the  universe, 
recent  investigations  favor  the  conclusion  that 
neither  the  matter  in  the  world,  nor  the  en- 
ergy, can  be  increased  or  diminished  by  oper- 
ation of  any  laws  known  to  apply  to  such 
existence.  The  laws  under  which  these  two 
forms  of  being  hold  their  place  in  the  world 


276  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

involve  only  change  of  distribution  and  rela- 
tion. Both  matter  and  energy  are,  however, 
perpetually  undergoing  change  or  transform- 
ation, and  whether  the  change  be  for  the  bet- 
ter or  for  the  worse  in  the  history  of  the 
universe  as  a  whole,  the  fact  of  unceasing 
change  in  subordination  to  fixed  law,  is  clear 
evidence  that  matter  and  energy  are  not  eter- 
nal or  self-subsisting,  but  are  dependent  on 
some  transcendent  existence  imposing  the 
laws  determining  their  relations. 

Second,  as  to  organized  existence,  recent 
researches  go  to  prove  that  there  is  in  all  ani- 
mals a  measure  of  adaptability  to  surround- 
ing conditions  of  life,  providing  for  "  adaptive 
changes "  in  the  organism,  which  become 
fixed,  and  are  transmitted  to  succeeding  gen- 
erations of  the  same  order  under  the  law  of 
heredity.  On  warrant  of  the  evidence  for 
this,  it  is  to  be  taken  as  certain  that  the 
various  orders  of  animals  now  familiar  to  us 
did  not  at  first  come  into  being  with  all  the 
characteristics  now  pertaining  to  them.  The 
law  of  their  life  has  provided  for  a  progression 
in  development,  in  accordance  with  which  we 
have  distinct  orders  of  the  pigeon,  the  dog, 
and  the  horse,  with  variations  in  animals  of 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     277 

every  class.  This  law  of  development,  ap- 
plicable to  all  animal  life,  admits  of  greater 
or  less  diversity  of  result  in  the  history  of 
distinct  races,  according  to  the  complexity 
of  the  organism. 

Third,  as  to  the  relations  of  different  orders 
in  the  scale  of  animal  life,  it  is  proved  that  all 
vital  organism  has  been  modelled  on  a  com- 
mon plan  as  appears  in  the  arrangement  and 
functions  of  the  nerve  system,  providing  for 
sensibility  and  motor  activity.  In  accordance 
with  this,  we  find  in  different  orders  of  ani- 
mal life  not  merely  analogies  or  resemblances 
in  structure,  but  homologies  or  examples  of 
complete  identity  of  structure  and  'function. 
Thus  the  brain,  and  the  two  sets  of  nerve 
lines,  namely  sensory  and  motor,  are  the 
same  in  nature  and  functions  in  all  animals, 
from  the  frog  to  man  inclusive,  and  they 
differ  only  in  complexity  of  arrangement 
within  the  central  organ,  and  extent  of 
ramification  of  the  nerve  lines.  Diversity 
of  nature  thus  far  appears  in  the  relative 
complexity  of  organism.  This  is  a  conclu- 
sion which  assigns  to  man  his  place  in  the 
scale  of  animal  life;  that  is,  in  so  far  as  we 
regard  man  exclusively  by  reference  to  his 


278  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

animal  nature,  he  stands  highest  in  the  scale 
of  organism, — first  in  rank,  judged  simply  by 
complexity  of  brain  structure,  and  minuteness 
of  nerve  system. 

Fourth,  in  respect  of  moral  life,  that  is, 
ability  to  contemplate  a  law  of  life  abso- 
lutely authoritative  as  well  as  universally 
applicable  amongst  intelligent  beings, — such 
for  example  as  the  law  of  benevolence;  abil- 
ity to  control  the  whole  animal  nature  so  as 
to  subject  it  to  this  higher  law  of  benevo- 
lence; ability  to  strive  after  the  harmonizing 
of  all  dispositions  and  actions  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  benevolence, — man  occupies 
a  distinct  place  in  the  order  of  beings  ex- 
isting in  the  world,  no  other  living  being 
standing  associated  with  him.  There  are  in- 
numerable forms  of  organized  being  in  the 
world;  but  only  a  single  representative  of 
moral  life  in  it.  No  being  save  man  con- 
templates a  general  law  of  life,  making  its 
fulfilment  a  deliberate  end  of  action;  no  be- 
ing save  man  possesses  a  conception  of  duty 
or  oughtness,  which,  if  it  be  regarded  simply 
as  an  intellectual  exercise,  can  be  apprehended 
only  under  application  of  a  law  of  conduct 
such  as  benevolence.  That  man  stands  en- 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     279 

tirely  alone  in  these  respects,  and  is,  there- 
fore, to  be  ranked  as  a  distinct  order  of  be- 
ing, appears  from  the  following  definite  lines 
of  evidence:  no  animal  contemplates  a  gen- 
eral law  of  conduct,  or  intelligible  rule  of 
life  applicable  for  the  government  of  the 
order  to  which  it  belongs;  no  animal  subor- 
'dinates  physical  impulse  at  the  bidding  of 
such  a  law;  no  animal  aims  at  the  perfect- 
ing of  its  nature  under  a  general  conception 
of  the  excellence  of  its  own  nature,  as  dog, 
horse,  or  ape.  Therefore  we  conclude  that 
man  alone  of  all  living  beings  known  to  us 
in  this  world  is  a  moral  being. 

Taking  now  these  four  aspects  of  existence 
as  known  to  us  in  this  world, — without  ad- 
vancing to  deal  directly  with  the  phases  and 
conditions  of  religious  life, — the  whole  four 
can  be  freely  accepted  by  religious  men  in 
strict  harmony  with  all  the  requirements  of 
religious  thought.  The  three  first  named  are 
distinct  advances  in  the  history  of  physical 
science,  and  will  be  generally  admitted  to  in- 
clude the  most  important  accessions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  physical  universe  having 
any  bearing  on  the  conceptions  lying  at  the 
basis  of  religious  thought.  The  fourth  is  the 


280  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

product  of  philosophical  inquiry,  proceeding 
in  accordance  with  direct  observation  of  per- 
sonal experience,  and  by  means  of  simple 
analysis  of  our  intelligent  activity  as  that  is 
concerned  with  the  government  of  personal 
life,  especially  in  view  of  the  relations  sub- 
sisting in  society.  This  last  as  a  philosophic 
conclusion,  not  attained  by  physiological  re- 
search, not  properly  any  part  of  physical  sci- 
ence, but  reached  only  by  distinguishing 
properly  certain  contents  of  our  every-day 
thought,  may  be  liable  to  rejection  from  those 
who  rely  only  on  the  methods  peculiar  to 
physical  science.  But  such  treatment  of  the 
propositions  has  no  bearing  on  their  truth; 
as  denial  of  them  will  not  deliver  any  man 
from  the  obligations  of  benevolence,  or  ex- 
empt him  from  the  demands  of  his  fellowmen, 
requiring  that  in  seeking  his  own  satisfaction 
he  shall  not  be  selfish,  and  certainly  not  harsh, 
as  if  the  strongest  might  have  all  they  desire, 
and  the  weakest  must  be  content  to  wait  on 
their  pleasure.  Denial  of  the  recognition  of 
a  law  of  benevolence  will  not  exempt  him 
from  the  experience  consequent  on  the  ex- 
pectations of  his  fellowmen  as  they  seek  help 
for  the  suffering,  or  sympathy  for  the  sorrow- 


SCIENCE  AND   DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     281 

fill,  or  rescue  for  the  perishing.  Though  what 
has  been  said  as  to  the  law  of  benevolence 
implies  that  it  is  universally  authoritative, 
there  is  no  express  philosophic  theory  here  in- 
troduced as  to  the  mode  by  which  this  knowl- 
edge is  attained,  or  the  grounds  on  which  its 
universality  is  asserted.  The  bare  fact  that 
each  man  expects  his  fellowman  to  be  benev- 
olent is  enough  for  the  present  purpose.  The 
simple  declaration  that  the  man  who  seeks 
only  his  own  gratification,  setting  at  defi- 
ance all  the  rights  of  his  fellowmen,  is  un- 
worthy the  name  of  man  and  acts  a  brute's 
part,  is  all  that  any  one  needs  who  would 
make  good  the  argument  that  human  na- 
ture is  distinct  from  that  of  the  brutes.  No 
man  can  escape  the  obligation  to  benevo- 
lent disposition ;  no  man  except  the  man 
of  gross  character  attempts  to  live  as  if  he 
regarded  the  violation  of  it  as  capable  of 
vindication.  These  two  things  being  so,  the 
testimony  is  as  strong  as  that  establishing 
the  elementary  truths  of  science,  which  dem- 
onstrates that  man  owns  a  universal  moral 
law,  and  so  distinguishes  himself  from  the 
animals.  The  conditions  of  human  life  are 
too  clearly  recognized,  and  too  constantly  in- 


282  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

sisted  upon  in  ordinary  society,  to  allow  cover 
for  ambiguities,  and  denials  which  would  fa- 
vor the  position  of  those  who  accept  only 
what  is  ascertained  by  the  methods  of  physi- 
ological investigation.  Hence  it  happens  that 
popular  favor  runs  deeply  and  strongly  for 
the  kind  and  good;  and  science  itself  must 
yield  when  the  testimony  of  the  race  is 
uniform. 

Before  closing  this  inquiry,  it  is  desirable 
to  pass  over  from  the  outstanding  conceptions 
of  science  and  philosophy,  to  distinctive  and 
prominent  conceptions  belonging  to  religious 
thought,  with  the  view  of  considering  whether 
these  can  be  held  in  harmony  with  the  teach- 
ing of  science.  Of  these,  reference  may  be 
made  specially  to  two  which  encounter  oppo- 
sition on  professedly  scientific  grounds: — Mir- 
acle as  an  evidence  of  the  Messiahship  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  and  the  efficacy  of  Prayer 
in  the  economy  of  spiritual  life.  These  two 
conceptions  have  encountered  strong  oppo- 
sition on  the  allegation  of  inconsistency  with 
the  unchangeableness  of  the  laws  of  nature. 
It  becomes,  therefore,  an  important  part  of 
the  present  investigation,  to  ascertain  how  far 
these  two  articles  of  Christian  faith,  miracu- 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     233 

lous  testimony  to  the  divinity  of  our  Saviour, 
and  habitual  answer  to  the  prayer  offered  to 
God  by  those  who  approach  Him  in  the  mer- 
it of  the  Redeemer,  are  consistent  with  the 
teaching  of  science.  These  two  conceptions 
are  naturally  included  in  the  one  question  as 
to  the  compatibility  with  the  laws  of  nature 
of  the  interposition  of  supernatural  agency 
for  attainment  of  moral  and  spiritual  ends  in 
the  history  of  the  world. 

First  in  order  stands  the  question  of  MIR- 
ACLE as  involved  in  the  evidence  of  divine 
power  and  authority  given  by  our  Lord,  dur- 
ing His  sojourn  in  this  world  to  accomplish 
the  great  work  of  redemption.*  The  testi- 
mony of  miracle  as  presented  in  the  historical 
narrative  of  Christ's  life  is  frequent  and  abun- 
dant in  variety ;  and  its  connection  with  His 
work  for  the  redemption  of  sinful  men  is  ev- 
erywhere proclaimed.  It  is  impossible  to 
contemplate  the  scriptural  testimony  to  the 
glory  of  Christ's  nature  without  including 
miracle  as  a  conspicuous  part  of  it ;  and  it  is 
equally  impossible  to  detach  this  testimony 

*  The  limits  of  the  present  discussion  make  it  impossible  to 
include  a  wider  range;  but  this  really  embraces  the  whole  ques- 
tion of  the  miracles  of  Scripture. 


284  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

from  relation  to  the  mediatorial  work  of  the 
Redeemer  as  concerned  with  the  pardon  of 
sin,  and  restoration  of  man  to  holiness  of 
character.  It  thus  becomes  an  essential  test 
of  the  validity  of  Christian  evidence  to  settle 
the  compatibility  of  miracle  with  the  know- 
ledge now  possessed  of  the  laws  of  nature. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  discuss  the  cred- 
ibility of  miracles,  as  affected  by  the  question 
whether  there  can  be  sufficiency  of  testimony 
to  support  the  occurrence  of  a  miracle, — a 
question  which  has  engaged  an  amount  of  at- 
tention disproportionate  to  its  intellectual 
worth.  The  suggestion  of  the  question  was 
nothing  better  than  an  example  of  misleading 
ingenuity,  allowed  to  stand  on  the  page  on 
which  it  was  indited  in  manifest  violation  of 
the  laws  of  evidence  and  the  essential  condi- 
tions of  human  knowledge.  The  value  of  tes- 
timony does  not  depend  on  the  nature  of  the 
thing  to  which  it  applies,  but  on  the  character 
of  the  witness,  and  the  opportunity  for  ob- 
serving and  testing  the  facts  described.  There 
are,  for  example,  a  series  of  surgical  opera- 
tions being  performed  in  Edinburgh  for  re- 
moval of  tumors  (Ovariotomy),  and  being 
repeated  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks, 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     285 

which   have   hitherto  been  declared   by  the 
profession  to  be  impossible  without  sacrifice 
of  life ;  and  yet  they  are  successfully  accom- 
plished,   leaving   only  an   exceedingly   small 
percentage  of  death.     The  whole   combined 
testimony  of  preceding  ages  has  been  against 
the  possibility  of  such  operations ;  but  this  is 
a  consideration  of  no  value  whatever  in  view 
of  the  testimony  of  the  surgeons  who  take 
part  in  the  hazardous  and  responsible,   but 
most  beneficent  work,   and  of  those  profes- 
sional men  who  have  come  from  France,  and 
Russia,  and  other  lands,  to  witness  the  opera- 
tion,   and   of  citizens   well   acquainted   with 
patients  who  have  been  delivered  from  a  bur- 
dened  life,   overshadowed  with   prospect  of 
early  death.     The  laws  of  evidence  are  too 
well  understood  to  call  for  abstract  reasoning 
as  to  the  credibility  of  the  witnesses  who  are 
at  present  giving  their  testimony  to  the  sci- 
entific world,  of  the  successful  repetition  of 
an  operation  hitherto  believed  to  be  impossi- 
ble.    The  bearing  of  such  an  illustration  on 
the  discussions  raised  concerning  the  credi- 
bility of  the  evidence  of  our  Lord's  disciples 
to   the   miracles   He   performed    is    obvious. 
Nor   is   there   need    for   occupying    time    in 


286  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

trampling  out  the  beaten  straw  by  lingering 
over  the  argument  that  no  evidence  can  be 
sufficient  to  establish  a  miracle,  because  a  mir- 
acle is  contrary  to  common  experience ;  for, 
it  is  obvious  that  a  miracle  must  be  contrary 
to  common  experience,  since  that  which  is 
matter  of  common  experience  can  not  be  a 
miracle,  but  must  be  an  event  determined  by 
some  law  of  nature.  The  uniformity  of  the 
laws  of  nature  is  even  a  necessary  condition 
for  the  evidential  value  of  miracles. 

We  pass  to  the  real  merits  of  the  question 
in  discussing  the  possibility  of  the  miracles 
of  Christ  without  violation  of  any  of  the  laws 
of  nature  as  ascertained  by  the  most  recent 
advances  of  science. 

The  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ  profess  to  be 
supernatural  interpositions  for  accomplish- 
ment of  an  immediate  benevolent  purpose, 
while  in  combination  they  afford  a  body  of 
evidence  testifying  to  the  power  and  benevo- 
lent mission  of  a  divine  Saviour  of  the  sinful. 
Their  directly  benevolent  aim  is  conspicuous 
throughout.  Jesus  never  performs  any  won- 
derful work  for  display  of  power;  when  a  de- 
sire is  indicated  for  signs  in  the  heavens,  these 
are  refused;  when  His  own  wants  are  con- 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     287 

cerned,  there  is  no  exercise  of  power  to  de- 
liver Himself  from  suffering;  but  when  a  poor 
sufferer  appeals  for  deliverance,  He  is  ready 
to  act;  or  when  the  feeble,  oppressed  condi- 
tion of  one  who  has  been  a  long  time  in  this 
case  comes  under  His  eye,  He  is  moved  to 
compassion  and  gives  unexpected  deliverance 
even  without  intervention  of  a  request.  All 
this  is  done,  not  as  if  it  were  any  part  of 
the  divine  purpose  to  keep  men  exempt  from 
suffering,  nor  as  if  it  were  inconsistent  with 
the  divine  benevolence  to  allow  its  return  and 
continuance,  for  He  is  at  pains  to  warn  that 
even  a  worse  thing  may  come;  but  as  if  deliv- 
erance from  suffering  were  in  harmony  with 
His  mission,  and  peculiarly  appropriate  as 
illustrative  of  a  Saviour's  design  as  well  as  of 
His  divine  power.  By  way  of  sign  He  would 
rescue  from  disease,  in  order  thereby  to  point 
to  a  grander  deliverance,  even  from  sin  which 
causes  all  the  world's  sorrow. 

The  question  here  calling  for  attention  is, 
How  do  these  miracles  stand  related  to  the 
laws  of  nature  which  we  now  recognize  as 
fixed  and  unchangeable  ?  The  first  portion  of 
the  answer  must  be  that  they  are  incapable 
of  explanation  under  these  laws.  They  are 


288  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

veritable  examples, — referring  for  the  present 
exclusively  to  their  nature,  not  to  the  evi- 
dence on  which  we  acknowledge  that  they 
occurred, — they  are  veritable  examples  of  re- 
sults incapable  of  being  attained  under  the 
operation  of  natural  law.  The  effects  se- 
cured were  indeed  only  such  as  would  have 
been  attained  had  medical  science  been  able 
to  accomplish  the  result,  for  the  great  major- 
ity of  them  belong  to  the  region  in  which  the 
grand  healing  art  works  out  its  beneficent 
contribution  to  human  well  being.  But  in 
respect  of  the  mode  of  their  execution  they 
were  in  no  sense  analogous  to  what  is  achieved 
by  unexpected  advance  in  scientific  knowledge 
and  skill.  There  was  nothing  in  the  whole 
course  of  our  Lord's  life,  bearing  resemblance 
to  the  work  of  him  who  laboriously  ponders 
the  varied  aspects  of  some  selected  form  of 
disease,  and  ultimately  attains  to  skill  in  a 
new  mode  of  treatment,  or  a  dangerous  and 
difficult  form  of  operation.  The  word  spoken 
to  the  leper  or  the  paralytic;  the  anointing 
of  the  eyes  with  clay  and  sending  the  blind 
man  with  his  clay-covered  eyelids  to  wash 
in  a  pool;  the  command  to  Jairus's  daughter, 
"Maid,  arise;"  and  the  call  to  the  man  of 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     289 

Bethany,  "  Lazarus,  come  forth," — present  no 
likeness  to  the  conduct  of  one  merely  exer- 
cising a  deeper  knowledge  of  the  remedial 
measures  which  are  constantly  being  em- 
ployed in  some  mode  or  other  for  relief  of 
suffering.  What  we  witness  in  the  varied 
forms  of  His  works  is  supernatural  interven- 
tion, exercise  of  divine  authority  and  power. 
There  is  no  competent  vindication  of  the  sa- 
cred narrative  by  reduction  of  our  Lord's 
works  to  the  level  of  those  forms  of  knowledge 
and  skill  which  are  within  the  reach  of  hu- 
man discovery.  The  sacred  writings  offer  no 
suggestion  pointing  in  this  direction;  Chris- 
tian faith,  in  the  defence  it  offers  for  its  rec- 
ognition of  the  miraculous  in  Christ's  life, 
does  not  shelter  itself  behind  such  a  poor 
breastwork,  as  that  which  is  gained  by  eli- 
minating the  supernatural, — seeking  to  de- 
fend itself  by  surrendering  all  that  is  dis- 
tinctive of  the  God-man,  who  not  only  spake 
as  man  never  spake,  but  who  with  profuse 
liberality  performed  works  of  healing  which 
made  the  ears  of  the  nation  to  tingle,  com- 
pelling reluctant  witnesses  to  testify,  that  it 
was  never  so  seen  in  Israel.  The  super- 
natural works  of  Jesus  belong  to  the  same 


290  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

place  in  history,'  as  that  which  records  the 
supernatural  attributes  belonging  to  His  per- 
sonality. 

To  the  question,  How  do  thje  works  of  Je- 
sus stand  related  to  the  laws  of  nature  ?  the 
next  portion  of  the  answer  is  that  they  do 
not  conflict  with  these  laws  in  any  intelligi- 
ble sense.  The  believer  in  Christ's  miracles, 
as  he  meets  the  manifest  requirements  of 
science,  may  fairly  ask  of  scientific  critics 
that  they  state  any  law  of  nature  which  was 
violated  in  any  example  of  the  Saviour's  be- 
nevolent doings,  in  a  sense  of  the  word  "  vio- 
lation "  which  conflicts  with  the  indubitable 
teaching  of  science  concerning  the  unchange- 
ableness  of  the  laws  of  nature.  It  might  well 
suffice  for  exposition  of  Christian  thought  at 
an  earlier  period  of  Bible  interpretation  when 
the  sole  object  was  to  set  forth  the  transcen- 
dent grandeur  of  Christ's  works,  to  represent 
a  miracle  as  "  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  na- 
ture," meaning  thereby  to  concentrate  on  the 
fact  that  equally  by  its  character,  and  by 
profession  of  the  agent,  it  was  a  work  which 
ordinary  power  was  insufficient  to  explain. 
By  parity  of  reasoning,  it  may  equally  be  al- 
lowed that  a  legitimate  course  is  followed, 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     291 

and  an  important  service  is  rendered  to  the 
advance  of  Christian  evidence,  if  it  be  urged 
by  scientific  men  that  a  violation  of  the  laws 
of  nature  is  inconsistent  with  what  is  now  as- 
certained as  to  the  government  of  the  physi- 
cal world.  This  collision  between  old  forms 
of  statement  and  new  forms  of  test  is  a  gain 
to  all  interests  concerned.  It  must  press  into 
notice  the  inquiry  as  to  the  sense  in  which 
the  old  terminology  was  employed,  and  also 
the  sense  in  which  this  new  test  is  presented. 
If  this  comparison  be  prosecuted  to  its  final 
result,  no  Christian  believer  will  find  himself 
disturbed  by  apprehension  of  a  possible  call 
to  conflict  with  science,  and  no  scientific  men 
will  feel  themselves  drawn  into  antagonism 
with  the  accredited  forms  of  Christian  belief 
as  to  the  miraculous.  A  few  carefully  stated 
propositions  should  help  towards  making  this 
clear,  if  only  these  can  be  so  drawn  as  to  meet 
the  demands  of  science,  and  also  accurately 
represent  Christ's  life. 

The  testimony  of  science  dealing  with  the 
evidence  open  to  observation  is  that  the  laws 
of  nature,  such  as  the  laws  of  gravitation, 
transmutation  of  energy,  and  the  develop- 
ment and  support  of  living  organism,  are 


292  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

fixed  and  unchangeable,  so  that  persistent  an- 
tagonism to  them  is  only  conflict  of  a  weaker 
force  with  a  stronger  which  must  end  in  dis- 
aster or  destruction  to  the  weaker.  Over 
against  this  we  do  not  find  it  possible  to 
place  any  statement,  either  in  the  form  of 
direct  affirmation,  or  of  inference  deducible 
from  the  implications  of  Christ's  actions  or 
words,  which  can  be  regarded  as  directly 
contradictory.  On  the  contrary  the  deeds 
and  sayings  of  Christ  carry  a  multitude  of 
suggestions  in  strict  harmony  with  this  gen- 
eral teaching  of  science.  When  He  would 
indicate  to  His  hearers  how  they  are  guided 
in  their  judgment  by  the  uniformity  of  nat- 
ural law,  He  points  to  the  signs  which  they 
interpret  in  the  aspect  of  the  atmosphere 
morning  and  evening.  When  the  suggestion 
is  placed  before  Him  that  He  should  cast 
Himself  from  an  eminence  in  token  of  His 
superiority  to  ordinary  risks,  He  does  not 
hint  at  a  suspension  of  the  law  of  gravitation, 
but  teaches  that  man  should  not  transgress  the 
divine  will  by  rashly  exposing  himself  to  dan- 
ger. When  He  would  teach  men  to  combine 
labor  and  trust,  He  points  them  to  the  uni- 
form provision  for  the  clothing  and  adorning 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     293 

of  the  vegetable  world  which  can  not  in  any 
measure  care  for  itself.  And  so  we  might 
proceed,  were  there  any  need  for  multiplying 
evidence  as  to  a  feature  of  Christ's  teaching 
manifest  to  every  Bible  reader. 

The  record  of  Scripture  presenting  the  nar- 
ratives of  Christ's  miracles  does  not  at  any 
time  represent  our  Saviour  as  interposing  to 
stay  for  a  brief  period  the  action  of  fixed  law, 
or  to  prevent  the  application  of  such  law  in 
the  history  of  a  particular  individual.  In  all 
these  wonders  of  healing  nothing  more  hap- 
pens as  to  actual  result,  having  a  general  bear- 
ing on  procedure  in  the  physical  world,  than 
does  happen  when  a  cure  of  a  critical  phase  of 
disease  is  accomplished  by  some  newly  discov- 
ered appliance  at  command  of  medical  art. 
These  two  cases  are  essentially  different  as  to 
mode  of  action,  but  they  are  strictly  identical 
as  to  result,  and  this  identity  amounts  to  a 
demonstration  of  harmony  with  scientific  re- 
quirements, as  these  actually  guide  men  to 
the  discovery  of  new  methods.  That  there 
is  identity  of  result  only  in  some  cases  does 
not  affect  the  argument,  but  arises  from  the 
essential  features  of  the  comparison,  as  a 
product  of  supernatural  intervention  must 


294  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

transcend  what  is  ultimately  attained  by  la- 
borious processes  of  human  research.  But 
that  there  is  in  any  case  an  identity  of  result 
under  the  very  different  conditions,  is  an  in- 
dication that  supernatural  intervention  is  not 
an  interference  with  the  laws  of  nature  such 
as  would  be  involved  in  their  suspension  or 
subversion.  There  is  a  great  difference  be- 
tween recovery  from  suspended  animation  and 
resurrection  from  the  dead  as  in  the  case  of 
Lazarus,  but  the  fixed  order  of  the  universe 
is  no  more  disturbed  in  the  latter  case  than 
in  the  former. 

A  further  consideration  bearing  on  the  mir- 
acles of  Christ  needs  to  be  stated,  though  it 
comes  more  directly  into  relation  with  phi- 
losophy than  with  science  properly  so  called. 
Every  one  of  these  miracles  was  performed 
avowedly  for  moral  ends,  afid  under  applica- 
tion of  moral  conditions,  while  for  immediate 
physical  effects.  There  is  moral  law  as  well 
as  physical  law,  and  our  Saviour  subordinates 
the  latter  to  the  former  in  determining  the 
use  He  makes  of  supernatural  agency.  The 
evidence  of  this  is  interwoven  through  the 
very  texture  of  the  narrative,  so  that  an  at- 
tempt to  sever  His  miracles  from  their  moral 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     295 

purpose  can  result  only  in  tearing  the  nar- 
rative into  fragments, — mutilating  the  rec- 
ord which  must  be  studied  and  interpreted 
as  it  has  been  put  into  our  hands.  Moral 
law  is  as  unchangeable  as  physical  law, 
though  the  character  and  form  of  its  sway 
differ  from  those  of  physical  law,  and  it  is 
easier  for  man  wilfully  to  violate  the  higher 
law  of  life  than  to  violate  the  lower.  Yet  so 
closely  are  the  higher  and  lower  connected 
in  human  history,  that  the  easy  violation  of 
moral  law  is  followed  by  painful  consequences 
under  the  reign  of  physical  law.  It  lay  with- 
in the  purpose  of  Jesus  to  deliver  from  both, 
and  it  is  only  in  recognition  of  this  combined 
or  complex  purpose  that  we  discover  the  ra- 
tional basis  on  which  supernatural  deliver- 
ance from  disease  becomes  a  natural  vehicle 
for  presenting  to  rational  beings  requisite  evi- 
dence of  divine  intervention  on  their  behalf 
as  they  are  entangled  in  the  disastrous  con- 
sequences of  violating  unchangeable  moral 
law.  If  on  other  grounds  it  be  apparent 
that  supernatural  interference  for  restora- 
tion of  health  or  life  does  not  involve  inter- 
ference with  physical  law  by  which  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  universe  could  be  in  any 


296  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

degree  affected;  on  the  grounds  now  con- 
templated we  come  to  recognize  a  harmony 
of  higher  and  lower  orders  of  fixed  law  bear- 
ing on  the  history  of  the  human  race,  and 
for  this  harmony  of  law  our  Saviour  mani- 
fested a  supreme  concern. 

With  these  brief  statements  before  us,  we 
are  now  prepared  for  turning  in  a  differ- 
ent direction  to  ascertain  what  is  the  special 
view  of  miracle  which  has  found  currency 
within  some  scientific  circles,  carrying  the  ex- 
planation of  intense  antipathy  to  its  acknow- 
ledgment, and  unhesitating  declaration  that 
the  whole  body  of  scientific  teaching,  and 
even  the  characteristics  of  scientific  method, 
are  adverse  to  the  very  conception  of  mir- 
acle. For  the  purpose  now  in  view  it  may 
be  well  to  present  in  close  connection  the 
successive  utterances  of  a  single  author,  who 
may  be  taken  as  representative  of  a  class. 
The  work  of  Professor  Schmidt  on  The  Doc- 
trine of  Descent  and  Darwinism  will  supply  il- 
lustrations of  the  kind  to  which  reference  has 
been  made,  as  this  author  states  at  the  out- 
set that  the  doctrine  of  descent  finds  its  an- 
tagonists among  those  "who  perceive,  more 
or  less  distinctly,  the  danger  with  which  the 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE  INTERPOSITION,     297 

new  doctrine  threatens  their  standpoint  of 
miracle."  *  From  this  allusion  it  appears 
that  he  regards  a  doctrine  of  descent  as 
opposed  to  what  he  describes  as  an  "in- 
comprehensible act  of  creation."  f  Accord- 
ingly he  celebrates  the  praises  of  this  theory 
in  these  terms, — "it  interprets  by  a  single 
principle  those  great  phenomena  which  with- 
out its  aid  remain  a  mass  of  unintelligible 
miracles."  J  In  harmony  with  these  utter- 
ances he  speaks  of  gradual  evolution  of 
the  organs  of  special  sense,  such  as  the  or- 
gans of  hearing  and  smell,  as  giving  a  nega- 
tive to  "the  sudden  and  incomprehensible 
origination  of  these  organs  in  an  immediate 
state  of  completion."  § 

These  few  extracts  may  suffice  to  indicate 
the  mental  attitude  of  those  who  show  aver- 
sion to  the  acknowledgment  of  miracle.  With 
Schmidt  the  "miraculous"  is  another  name 
for  the  incomprehensible;  to  him  the  sug- 
gestion of  miracle  is  disagreeable  as  implying 
the  impossibility  of  scientific  explanation.  If 
these  things  be  kept  in  mind,  it  will  be  clear 
how  widely  apart  this  notion  is  from  the 
Christian  conception  of  miracle.  The  one 

•  p.  6.  t  p.  11.  \  p.  12.  §  p.  isi. 


298  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

view  is  that  observational  science  can  make  no 
account  of  miracle:  the  other  is  that  thought 
concerning  a  supernatural  Being  really  in- 
volves the  conception  of  miracle.  Science 
can  assign  no  place  to  the  incomprehensible, 
can  make  no  account  of  it.  Religion  finds  a 
higher  sphere  of  comprehensibility  in  the 
action  of  supernatural  power.  The  two  po- 
sitions are  radically  distinct,  and  do  not  come 
into  actual  conflict.  Hence  religion  has  no 
opposition  to  the  view  of  miracle  just  stated, 
which  amounts  to  little  more  than  a  negative 
definition  of  science.  To  say  that  science 
can  take  no  account  of  the  miraculous,  is 
only  in  other  words  to  say  that  science  is  ex- 
planation of  natural  phenomena  by  recogni- 
tion of  the  action  of  natural  causes,  conse- 
quently the  miraculous  does  not  come  within 
the  boundaries  of  science.  This  is  self-evi- 
dent, and  on  this  footing  theology  has  no  ac- 
count to  make  of  what  is  only  a  semblance 
of  opposition,  involving  no  real  conflict.  Cre- 
ation, for  example,  can  not  come  within  the 
compass  of  observational  science;  but  crea- 
tion may  nevertheless  be  a  rational  conception 
in  dealing  with  a  purely  rational  problem, 
which  does  not  at  all  belong  to  physical  sci- 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     299 

ence.  In  the  same  manner  it  appears  that 
the  whole  series  of  our  Lord's  miracles  are 
outside  the  area  of  science,  which,  as  it  has 
nothing  of  authority  to  advance  against  them, 
has  not  even  a  basis  on  which  to  offer  any 
testimony  concerning  their  possibility. 

One  topic  more  requires  to  be  briefly  con- 
sidered as  constituting  an  essential  of  religious 
thought,  namely  the  acknowledgment  of  di- 
vine interposition  for  the  answer  of  PRAYER. 
Our  question  is,  How  this  conception  of 
divine  answer  to  prayer  stands  related  to 
scientific  thought  concerning  the  government 
of  the  world  by  fixed  law?  If  the  laws  of 
nature  are  fixed,  how  can  the  government 
of  the  world  allow  for  fulfilment  of  human  de- 
sire as  expressed  in  supplication?  The  ques- 
tion to  be  discussed  has  two  sides,  the  one 
concerned  with  the  conditions  on  which  an 
answer  to  prayer  is  expected;  the  other  with 
the  exact  significance  of  the  scientific  con- 
ception of  the  government  of  the  world  by 
fixed  law.  If  there  be  a  rational  basis  for 
prayer  as  encouraged  by  the  teaching  of 
Scripture,  there  can  be  no  such  dilemma  as 
would  be  implied  in  supposing  that  law  is 
fixed  yet  not  fixed,  or  that  law  is  unchange- 


300  SCIENCE   AND    RELIGION. 

able  in  all  cases  save  in  the  history  of  the 
man  of  prayer,  in  whose  behalf  the  laws  of 
nature  are  liable  to  be  held  in  check.  There 
may  be  among  Christian  men  considerable 
diversity  in  the  clearness  of  apprehension 
with  which  they  grasp  the  meaning  of  the 
divine  promise  to  answer  prayer;  but  there 
is  no  one  taught  by  the  Scriptures  as  to  the 
privilege  of  prayer,  who  thinks  of  it  as  im- 
plying that  the  laws  of  the  universe  are  lia- 
ble to  be  held  in  suspension  because  the  de- 
sires of  his  heart  are  rising  to  God  in  humble, 
earnest  supplication.  The  man  trained  to  rec- 
ognize this  truth  affecting  God's  government 
that  "  He  maketh  His  sun  to  rise  on  the  evil 
and  on  the  good;  and  sendeth  rain  on  the 
just,  and  on  the  unjust/7  does  not  readily 
fall  into  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  all  the 
laws  of  the  universe  are  at  His  bidding,  be- 
cause of  the  divine  encouragement  to  prayer. 
The  Christian  prays  only  under  divine  war- 
rant, and  this  does  not  convey  any  such  sug- 
gestion. 

First,  then,  we  can  clear  away  at  once  the 
cruder  thoughts  of  the  unintelligent  believer 
in  the  power  of  prayer;  and  those  of  the  sci- 
entific objector  to  prayer,  who  is  not  instructed 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     301 

in  scriptural  doctrine.  Prayer  does  not  imply 
a  probable  reversal  of  the  laws  of  nature;  but 
it  does  imply  a  moral  government  in  the  midst 
of  the  physical  world,  and  the  subordination 
of  the  physical  to  the  moral  under  regulation  of 
an  all-wise  and  almighty  Ruler.  The  question 
before  us  concerns  this  subordination,  and  the 
possibilities  which  it  implies. 

Towards  the  attainment  of  exact  concep- 
tions here  the  first  requisite  is  a  clear  un- 
derstanding of  the  scientific  doctrine  of  the 
government  of  the  world  by  fixed  law.  In 
whatever  sense  we  take  the  word  "law  "  as 
applicable  to  God's  government  of  the  uni- 
verse, there  is  no  law  which  is  fluctuating,  or 
liable  to  have  one  signification  at  one  time, 
and  a  quite  different  signification  at  another 
time;  a  narrower  range  of  application  at  one 
period,  and  a  wider  range  at  a  later.  Such 
fluctuation  would  imply  a  suspension  of  a  law 
of  nature,  and  the  conception  of  such  a  thing 
is  inconsistent  with  absolute  rational  govern- 
ment, alien  equally  to  the  principles  of  science 
and  of  religion.  Laws  physical,  moral,  and 
spiritual  are  equally  fixed  laws. 

But  the  laws  of  the  universe  are  a  harmony, 
and  in  the  midst  of  the  interdependence  of 


302  SCIENCE  ^AND    RELIGION. 

laws  distinct  in  character,  the  harmony  of  the 
whole  is  secured  by  the  subordination  of  phy- 
sical law  to  moral  and  spiritual.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  this  harmonized  relationship  of  the 
diverse  laws  of  the  divine  government  that  the 
spirit  of  prayer  lives,  and  makes  good  its  ra- 
tional consistency.  And  it  is  only  on  condi- 
tion of  acknowledgment  of  diverse  laws,  in- 
cluding moral  with  physical,  that  the  scientific 
man  can  interpose  any  criticism  as  to  the 
efficacy  of  prayer.  Any  denial  of  a  moral 
government  in  the  midst  of  the  physical  uni- 
verse, under  sway  of  a  God  of  righteousness, 
places  an  objector  entirely  out  of  the  sphere 
in  which  criticism  can  proceed.  Physical  law 
determining  conditions  of  bodily  life  is  fixed 
law;  moral  law  deciding  the  conditions  of  right 
conduct  in  intelligent  life  is  fixed  law;  spirit- 
ual law  deciding  the  conditions  of  fellowship 
with  the  Father  of  our  spirits  is  fixed  law. 
The  believer  in  the  Bible  has  no  hesitancy 
in  acknowledgment  of  all  this;  he  is  a  be- 
liever in  fixed  law  in  a  higher  and  grander 
sense  than  scientific  teaching  indicates,  and 
he  believes  in  the  harmony  of  all  existence 
under  an  unchangeable  government,  notwith- 
standing all  the  wrong  doing  in  the  world, 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     303 

and  the  dreadful  misery  resulting  from  it. 
His  belief  in  the  harmony  of  the  universe 
rests  on  his  belief  in  the  fixedness  of  law 
physical  as  well  as  moral,  and  moral  as  well 
as  physical. 

But  the  fixedness  belonging  to  various  or- 
ders of  law,  subsisting  in  a  state  of  inter- 
dependence, and  involving  subordination  of 
lower  to  higher,  needs  some  more  exact  in- 
terpretation. The  fixedness  of  law,  physical, 
intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual,  in  no  case 
involves  fixedness  of  result,  but  varying  results 
according  to  diversity  of  conditions.  There  is 
fixedness  of  physical  law,  but  withal  there  is 
diversity  of  weather,  and  seasons,  and  har- 
vests, and  that  because  a  variety  of  condi- 
tions are  harmonized  under  fixed  law.  There 
is  fixedness  of  intellectual  law  in  accordance 
with  which  accuracy  of  thought  is  determined, 
but  diversity  of  result  according  to  the  ma- 
terials with  which  we  deal.  And  so  it  is  with 
moral  and  spiritual  law,  providing  for  the  reg- 
ulation of  our  higher  life. 

What  then  needs  to  be  pondered  by  way 
of  reaching  an  ampler  interpretation  of  the 
formula  of  "  fixed  law  "  is  that  it  does  not  in 
any  case  imply  an  iron  rigidity  of  result,  an 


304:  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

undeviating  uniformity  of  occurrence.  There 
is  no  region  in  which  perpetual  change  can  be 
more  accurately  postulated  than  in  the  phys- 
ical world.  But  there  is  order  and  system  in 
these  changes,  admirably  illustrated  in  the 
weather  forecasts  of  the  present  advanced 
stage  of  physical  science,  which  are  attaina- 
ble only  by  continual  watching  of  shifting 
conditions  with  application  of  fixed  law  to 
the  appearance  of  wind  and  cloud  and  rain. 
But  there  are  no  forecasts  without  these  two 
things,  fixed  laws  and  varying  conditions  for 
their  application.  With  the  wider  general- 
ization which  admits  of  recognition  of  fixed 
law,  there  is  always  the  narrower,  concerned 
with  variable  conditions  to  which  the  wider  is 
to  be  applied.  So  it  is  under  moral  law,  and 
so  under  spiritual.  So  also  does  it  hold  when 
our  observation  is  directed  on  interdepend- 
ence of  two  orders  of  law.  such  as  the  moral 
and  physical.  This  combination  we  have  in 
human  life,  as  it  is  subjected  to  both.  Physi- 
cal law  reigns  in  human  history  as  illustrated 
by  the  laws  of  health,  which  are  fixed  irre- 
spective of  moral  law,  so  that  sewerage  gas 
will  be  prejudicial  to  health,  apart  from  the 
moral  character  of  a  man.  Moral  law  reigns 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     305 

in  human  life,  and  truthfulness  in  utterance, 
or  justice  in  action,  will  maintain  a  harmony 
of  the  inner  life,  whether  outwardly  there 
be  poverty  or  wealth.  These  two  orders  of 
law  are  independent,  yet  interwoven  in  their 
application  to  the  complex  life  of  man.  Im- 
morality will  find  its  accompaniment  in  phy- 
sical disorder;  the  repentance  which  has  heal- 
ing power  within  the  mind  will  not  heal 
the  body,  yet  may  there  be  advance  in  moral 
life  by  reason  of  the  weakness  and  suffering 
which  repentance  can  not  remove.  Such  is 
at  once  the  independence  and  the  interde- 
pendence of  physical  and  moral  law,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  fixedness  of  law  in  each 
case,  and  the  harmony  of  both  under  one 
government,  by  means  of  subordination  of 
the  physical  to  the  moral. 

There  are  thus  two  spheres,  physical  and 
moral,  but  one  life,  brought  to  harmony  un- 
der the  laws  of  both  spheres.  What  then  is 
the  bearing  of  this  distinction  of  spheres  on 
the  problem  of  the  efficacy  of  prayer,  view- 
ing the  question  only  in  the  light  of  science 
and  philosophy?  An  obvious  bearing,  in  so 
far  as  the  conditions  of  physical  and  moral 
life  are  set  forth  and  distinguished;  but  no 


306  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

determining  value  for  interpretation  of  the 
possible  influence  of  prayer  as  concerning  a 
life  subject  at  once  to  physical  and  moral  con- 
ditions. Prayer  can  be  exercised  in  accord- 
ance with  scientific  teaching,  only  by  intelli- 
gent recognition  of  the  physical  conditions  of 
life ;  in  accordance  with  philosophy,  only  by 
intelligent  acknowledgment  of  the  subordina- 
tion of  physical  life  to  moral.  If  then,  we 
turn  to  the  teaching  of  science,  making  ac- 
count of  all  that  it  includes  as  to  fixed  laws 
applicable  to  ever-varying  conditions,  there  is 
nothing  in  it  to  warrant  the  conclusion  that 
there  can  be  no  interposition  from  a  higher 
sphere  in  order  to  secure  application  of  phy- 
sical law  for  attainment  of  moral  ends.  The 
whole  product  of  scientific  investigation  leaves 
clear  the  possibility  of  the  administration  of  a 
moral  government  in  accordance  with  subor- 
dination of  physical  law  to  the  attainment  of 
its  higher  ends.  It  does  not  help  the  under- 
standing of  the  government  of  the  world,  but 
rather  hampers  our  reflection,  if  it  be  suggest- 
ed that  there  are  two  spheres,  physical  and 
moral,  and  that  the  application  of  prayer  is 
restricted  to  one  of  these  spheres.  Human 
life  can  not  be  so  severed  into  parts;  it  is 


SCIENCE   AND   DIVINE   INTERPOSITION.     307 

a  unity  self-regulated  by  harmony  of  submis- 
sion to  moral  and  physical  law,  and  it  must 
be  governed  by  the  Supreme  Ruler  in  the 
harmonious  application  of  these  laws.  There 
is  no  sphere  of  life  into  which  the  moral  does 
not  enter,  and  accordingly  no  sphere  within 
which  prayer,  which  necessarily  rests  on  mor- 
al conditions,  may  not  apply. 

If  next  we  pass  to  Scripture  teaching  con- 
cerning prayer,  where  alone  we  find  full  in- 
struction on  the  subject,  in  precept,  example, 
and  a  variety  of  encouragements,  it  will  ap- 
pear that  the  warrant  for  prayer  is  found  ex- 
clusively in  the  divine  promise,  and  that  the 
application  of  that  promise  is  to  every  phase 
of  life,  subject  to  moral  conditions  which  are 
explicitly  revealed.  Prayer  is  a  privilege  di- 
vinely bestowed  through  the  Saviour,  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  fellowship  with  God  is 
granted  on  the  merits  of  the -Redeemer.  Its 
nature  reveals  the  true  harmony  between  God 
and  the  moral  creature,  as  a  reality  transcend- 
ing all  physical  existence  and  all  knowledge 
coming  from  study  of  physical  law.  The  ac- 
cepting of  this  privilege,  and  the  continuance 
of  its  exercise  are  the  tokens  of  returning  har- 
mony of  sinful  man  with  the  holy  God.  Ele- 


308  SCIENCE   AND   RELIGION. 

vation  in  the  exercise  by  steadily  extending  in- 
clusion of  a  wider  circle  of  personal  desire  and 
activity  within  the  area  of  conscious  fellowship 
with  God,  is  the  advance  of  the  moral  nature 
into  fuller  harmony  with  God,  and  with  the 
whole  government  of  the  universe.  The  teach- 
ing of  Scripture  which  assures  of  all  this,  and 
guides  man  towards  realization  of  it,  clear- 
ly distinguishes  between  material  and  moral 
good,  yet  does  not  exclude  the  one  any  more 
than  the  other,  but  subordinates  the  physi- 
cal to  the  moral,  harmonizing  the  two  in  rec- 
ognition of  the  supreme  importance  of  all 
that  is  moral.  It  does  not  exclude  desire  of 
temporal  good,  but  restricts  its  illustration  to 
desire  of  "  daily  bread/' — assures  us  that  our 
Father  knoweth  we  have  need  of  such  good, 
and  will  supply  it, — and  promises  that  having 
given  most  freely  what  is  best,  he  will  assur- 
edly give  that  which  is  least. 

If  then  it  be  said  that  the  answer  to  prayer 
is  a  miracle  of  divine  interposition  in  human 
history,  of  which  science  finds  no  trace,  we  do 
not  marvel,  for  science  does  not  extend  its  ob- 
servations to  the  inclusion  of  what  pertains  to 
the  higher  life  of  man.  If  any  man  asks  for 
evidence  in  an  exclusively  physical  sphere  that 


SCIENCE  AND  DIVINE  INTERPOSITION.     309 

God  answers  prayer,  he  asks  that  evidence 
should  be  discovered  apart  from  the  conditions 
involved.  A  more  unscientific  demand  there 
could  not  be.  When  he  refuses  to  admit  that 
there  can  be  any  trustworthy  evidence  of  the 
answer  of  prayer  apart  from  the  test  he  pro- 
poses, he  either  misunderstands  the  Christian 
doctrine  of  prayer,  or  he  is  criticising  a  con- 
ception of  prayer  other  than  the  Christian 
one.  If  we  turn  to  the  philosophy  of  human 
life  as  subjected  to  moral  law,  and  called  to 
its  perfect  fulfilment,  we  do  not  find  any  thing 
but  harmonious  truth  in  the  suggestion  that 
God  cares  more  for  the  moral  life  of  man  than 
for  the  physical  universe.  If  we  turn  to  Scrip- 
ture, receiving  its  teaching  as  to  prayer,  we 
find  that  the  promised  interposition  in  man's 
behalf  is  even  less  an  illustration  of  divine 
power  than  of  Divine  righteousness;  an  evi- 
dence that  the  Divine  Ruler  seeks  righteous- 
ness above  all  things,  for  the  entire  signifi- 
cance of  the  exercise  is  this,  trust  in  the  holy 
One,  and  fellowship  with  Him  through  life. 
On  this  ground  alone  does  He  promise  an  an- 
swer to  prayer,  in  this  promise  making  moral 
conditions  the  essential  test  for  use  of  the 
privilege,  requiring  the  suppliant  to  subordi- 


310  SCIENCE    AND    RELIGION. 

nate  to  these  all  desire  of  material  good.  It 
is  towards  success  in  attaining  true  fellowship 
with  Himself  that  God  is  ever  giving  promise 
of  blessing.  It  is  in  full  view  of  the  tran- 
scendent value  of  a  life  of  holiness,  that  the 
Supreme  Ruler  is  daily  condescending  to  stoop 
towards  His  children,  that  they  may  be  helped 
in  all  that  pertains  to  holiness  of  character 
and  life.  The  Bible  makes  it  essential  to  the 
government  of  the  world,  in  harmony  with 
fixed  law,  that  God  should  be  the  hearer  and 
answerer  of  the  prayer  of  His  intelligent  crea- 
tures, always  pointing  to  reliance  on  the  Sa- 
viour's work  as  the  test  of  the  reality  of  the 
exercise,  in  the  case  of  all  who  possess  the 
written  revelation  of  His  will,  in  the  glorious 
Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 


APPENDIX. 


APPENDIX. 


I. 

RELATIONS  OF  SCIENCE  AND  RELIGION.     Page  34. 

"He  who  contemplates  the  universe  from  the  re- 
ligious point  of  view,  must  learn  to  see  that  this  which 
we  call  science,  is  one  constituent  of  the  great  whole; 
and  as  such  ought  to  be  regarded  with  a  sentiment 
like  that  which  the  remainder  excites.  "While  he  who 
contemplates  the  universe  from  the  scientific  point  of 
view,  must  learn  to  see  that  this  which  we  call  Relig- 
ion is  similarly  a  constituent  of  the  great  whole;  and 
being  such,  must  be  treated  as  a  subject  of  science 
with  no  more  prejudice  than  any  other  reality.  It 
behooves  each  party  to  strive  to  understand  the  other, 
with  the  conviction  that  the  other  has  something  wor- 
thy to  be  understood;  and  with  the  conviction  that 
when  mutually  recognized  this  something  will  be  the 
basis  of  a  complete  reconciliation." — HEBBEET  SPENCEB, 
First  Principles,  p.  21. 

n. 

SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION.     Page  54. 

Professor  Tyndall,  describing  his  own  experiments, 
says,  "  The  experiments  have  already  extended  to  105 
instances,  not  one  of  which  shows  the  least  counte- 


314  APPENDIX. 

nance  to  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation." 
Communicated  to  Royal  Society  of  London,  Decem- 
ber 21,  1876. — Nature,  vol.  xv.  p.  303. 


in. 

ENERGY  AND  FORCE.     Page  96. 

The  term  Force  is  by  many  authors  used  as  equiva- 
lent to  Energy,  rather  than  as  a  distinct  term  for  the 
amount  of  Energy.  Force  is  thus  used  by  Sir  W.  R. 
Groves.  "  The  term  Force,  although  used  in  very  dif- 
ferent senses  by  different  authors,  in  its  limited  sense 
may  be  defined  as  that  which  produces  or  resists  mo- 
tion." ..."  I  use  the  term  Force  ...  as  meaning  that 
active  principle  inseparable  from  matter  which  is  sup- 
posed to  induce  its  various  changes."  ..."  All  we  know 
or  see  is  the  effect;  we  do  not  see  Force — we  see  mo- 
tion or  moving  matter." — The  Correlation  of  Physical 
Forces,  sixth  edition,  by  the  Hon.  Sir  W.  R.  Grove, 
pp.  10,  11. 

IV. 

ATT,  ORGANIZED  EXISTENCE  is  CONSTRUCTED  ON  A  COMMON 
PLAN.     Page  131. 

"  Biologists  turn  to  the  physical  organization  of  man. 
They  examine  his  whole  structure,  his  bony  frame,  and 
all  that  clothes  it.  They  resolve  him  into  the  finest 
particles  into  which  the  microscope  will  enable  them 
to  break  him  up.  They  consider  the  performance  of 
his  various  functions  and  activities,  and  they  look  at 


APPENDIX.  315 

the  manner  in  which  he  occurs  on  the  surface  of  the 
world.  Then  they  turn  to  other  animals,  and  taking 
the  first  handy  domestic  animal — say  a  dog, — they  pro- 
fess to  be  able  to  demonstrate  that  the  analysis  of  the 
dog  leads  them,  in  gross,  to  precisely  the  same  results 
as  the  analysis  of  the  man;  that  they  find  almost  iden- 
tically the  same  bones,  having  the  same  relations;  that 
they  can  name  the  muscles  of  the  dog  by  the  names 
of  the  muscles  of  the  man,  and  the  nerves  of  the  dog 
by  those  of  the  nerves  of  the  man,  and  that  such  struct- 
ures and  organs  of  sense  as  we  find  in  the  man,  such 
also  we  find  in  the  dog;  they  analyze  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord,  and  they  find  that  the  nomenclature 
which  fits  the  one  answers  for  the  other.  Moreover, 
they  trace  back  the  dog's  and  the  man's  development, 
and  they  find  that  at  a  certain  stage  of  their  existence, 
the  two  creatures  are  not  distinguishable  the  one  from 
the  other;  they  find  that  the  dog  and  his  kind  have  a 
certain  distribution  over  the  surface  of  the  world  com- 
parable in  its  way  to  the  distribution  of  the  human 
species Thus  biologists  have  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  a  fundamental  uniformity  of  structure  per- 
vades the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds,  and  that  plants 
and  animals  differ  from  one  another  simply  as  modifi- 
cations of  the  same  great  plan.  Again  they  tell  us  the 
same  story  in  regard  to  the  study  of  function.  They 
admit  the  large  and  important  interval  which,  at  the 
present  time,  separates  the  manifestations  of  the  men- 
tal faculties  observable  in  the  higher  forms  of  mankind, 
and  even  in  the  lowest  forms,  such  as  we  know  them, 
mentally  from  those  exhibited  by  other  animals;  but, 
at  the  same  time,  they  tell  us  that  the  foundations  or 


316  APPENDIX. 

rudiments  of  almost  all  the  faculties  of  man  are  to  be 
met  with  in  the  lower  animals;  that  there  is  a  unity  of 
mental  faculty,  as  well  as  of  bodily  structure,  and  that 
here  also,  the  difference  is  a  difference  of  degree  and 
not  of  kind." — Lecture  on  "  The  Study  of  Biology,"  by 
Professor  Huxley,  Nature,  vol.  xv.  p.  219.  Delivered 
at  South  Kensington  Museum,  London,  December  16, 
1876.  On  the  grounds  here  admirably  summarized,  it 
is  clear  that  the  whole  organism  of  our  world  has  been 
constructed  on  a  common  plan.  This  being  true,  sim- 
ilarities will  appear  in  process  of  development,  and  in 
the  structure  and  functions  of  different  orders.  This 
similarity,  however,  does  not  help  us  to  explain  "  the 
large  and  important  interval"  which  appears  when 
mental  characteristics  are  considered.  It  makes  the 
diversity  of  mental  power  more  difficult  to  explain  by 
reference  to  organism,  in  fact  contributing  to  the 
strength  of  evidence  for  mind  as  a  form  of  existence 
distinct  from  organism. 


V. 

EMBRYOLOGY.     Page  131. 

I  have  not  felt  warranted  to  include  in  the  text  any 
summary  of  results  secured  by  the  important,  but  very 
difficult,  investigations  concerning  the  growth  of  ani- 
mal life  in  the  womb.  This  whole  department  of  in- 
quiry is  in  such  an  unfinished  and  uncertain  state, 
that  there  is  not  warrant  to  found  upon  the  evidence 
already  obtained  any  general  argument  as  to  its  bear- 
ing on  a  theory  of  evolution.  The  most  competent 


APPENDIX.  317 

observers  admit  that  they  are  perplexed  by  facts  as- 
certained, and  confess  that  they  can  not  as  yet  offer  an 
explanation.  To  others  all  is  as  plain  as  possible;  em- 
bryology supplies  a*convincing  proof  of  the  accuracy 
of  an  evolution  theory;  but  these  are  scientific  theor- 
ists who  see  by  imagination,  and  are  impatient  of  un- 
certainty. There  are  certain  general  considerations 
which  must  interpose  difficulties  in  the  way  of  con- 
structing an  argument  from  Embryology  to  evolution 
of  species.  (1)  The  action  of  environment  before  birth 
is  altogether  different  from  the  action  of  environment 
after  birth.  (2)  The  theory  of  the  evolution  of  species 
emphasizes  this  difference  by  insisting  on  the  struggle 
for  existence.  (3)  This  difference  being  admitted,  an 
argument  from  the  one  to  the  other  can  not  hold.  In 
the  line  of  discovery  the  point  of  chief  interest  has 
been  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  embryonic  life  shows 
a  transition  through  lower  forms  analogous  to  lower 
orders  of  animal  existence  prior  to  reaching  the  ma- 
ture stage  when  birth  occurs.  But  in  connection  with 
the  facts  ascertained,  two  things  are  to  be  remarked. 

(1)  Evidence  of  transition  is  most  striking  in  the  his- 
tory of  animal  life  developed  external  to  the  parental 
life,  as  in  the  transition  from  larvce  to  pupce  among  in- 
sects, and  in  the  changes  in  the  life  of  the  tadpole. 

(2)  If  it  be  admitted  that  there  is  a  common  plan  of 
structure  for  all  organism,  it  is  implied  that  there  must 
be  similarities  in  process  of  development.     The  ques- 
tion requiring   answer,  therefore,  is  whether  in  the 
gradual  development  from  the  germ,  any  further  re- 
semblance to  lower  orders  appears  than  is  to  be  antic- 
ipated on  the  admission  of  a  common  plan  for  organic 


318  APPENDIX. 

structure.  There  are  singular  examples  of  transition. 
But  there  are  no  illustrations  of  uniform  progress  in 
the  case  of  the  higher  orders  such  as  would  warrant 
the  supposition  that  a  history  of  •volution  of  the  spe- 
cies can  be  read  in  the  development  of  the  foetus. 
The  supposition  has,  however,  found  currency  in  not 
a  little  of  our  scientific  teaching.  The  incompleteness 
of  this  evidence  may  appear  from  examples.  Take  the 
tadpole.  Huxley  states  the  facts  thus, — "  The  tadpole 
is  first  a  fish,  then  a  tailed  amphibian,  provided  with 
gills  and  lungs,  before  it  became  a  frog."  This  is  de- 
velopment outside  parental  life,  and  does  not  belong 
to  evidence  in  Embryology.  Confining  attention  to  em- 
bryonic life,  let  us  take  Huxley's  statement,  biologists 
"  trace  back  the  dog's  and  the  man's  development, 
and  they  find  that  at  a  certain  stage  of  their  existence, 
the  two  creatures  are  not  distinguishable  the  one  from 
the  other."  What  is  the  inference  to  be  drawn  ?  If 
the  two  are  not  distinguishable,  our  powers  of  distin- 
guishing are  insufficient,  for  no  biologist  suggests  that 
the  two  are  alike.  The  difficulty  of  distinguishing  two 
germs,  or  two  examples  of  foetus,  is  analogous  to  the 
difficulty  which  Darwin  has  pointed  out  of  distinguish- 
ing the  orders  of  dogs  when  they  are  six-days-old  pup- 
pies, or  the  breed  of  three-days-old  colt,  or  of  nestling 
pigeons.  At  these  stages,  the  animals  may  be  so  sim-. 
ilar,  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  them,  and 
yet  in  the  full  grown  state  they  are  quite  different 
(Darwin's  Origin  of  Species,  sixth  edition,  p.  391).  Mr. 
Darwin  has  presented  the  outstanding  facts  thus; — 
"  The  very  general,  though  not  universal,  difference  in 
structure  between  the  embryo  and  the  adult; — tha 


APPENDIX,  319 

various  parts  in  the  same  individual  embryo,  which 
ultimately  become  very  unlike  and  serve  for  diverse 
purposes,  being  at  an  early  period  of  growth  alike; — 
the  common,  but  not  invariable  resemblance  between 
the  embryos  or  larvae  of  the  most  distinct  species  in 
the  same  class; — the  embryo  often  retaining  whilst 
within  the  egg  or  womb,  structures  which  are  of  no 
service  to  it,  either  at  that  or  at  a  later  period  of  life." 


VI. 

NON-ADVANCEMENT  OP  LOWEB  ORDERS.     Page  158. 

Mr.  Darwin's  answer  to  the  difficulty  put  by  Agassiz 
is  this; — "On  our  theory  the  continued  existence  of 
lowly  organisms  offers  no  difficulty;  for  natural  selec- 
tion, or  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  does  not  necessarily 
include  progressive  development, — it  only  takes  ad- 
vantage of  such  variations  as  arise  and  are  beneficial 
to  each  creature  under  its  complex  relations  of  life." — 
Origin  of  Species,  sixth  edition,  p.  98.  This  wears  the 
aspect  of  a  limitation  of  the  theory,  and  to  that  extent 
an  acknowledgment  of  the  force  of  the  reasoning  of 
Agassiz. 

vn. 

PROTOPLASM.     Page  131. 

"  Protoplasm,  simple  or  nucleated,  is  the  formal  ba- 
sis of  all  life;"  thus  "all  living  forms  are  fundamen- 
tally of  one  character."  "  All  the  forms  of  Protoplasm 
which  have  yet  been  examined  contain  the  four  ele- 


320  APPENDIX. 

ments,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  in 
very  complex  union."  Thus  there  is  "  a  general  uni- 
formity in  the  character  of  the  Protoplasm,  or  physical 
basis  of  life,  in  whatever  group  of  living  beings  it  may 
be  studied." — HUXLEY'S  Lay  Sermons,  p.  142. 


VTEL 

NUMBER  or  SPECIES  or  INSECTS.     Page  193. 

Professor  Huxley  mentions  that  "  Gerstsecker  in  the 
new  edition  of  Broun's  '  Thier-Reich '  gives  200,000  as 
the  total  number  of  species  of  Arthropoda."  In  this 
connection  Mr.  McLauchlan,  when  claiming  that  there 
are  200,000  species  of  Insects,  adds,  "In  one  order 
alone  (Coleoptera)  it  is  estimated  that  80,000  species 
have  been  described." — Nature,  xv.  p.  275. 

IX. 

FERTILIZATION  or  FLOWERS  BY  INSECTS.     Page  170. 

Dr.  Hermann  Muller's  Observations  are  described 
in  Nature,  vol.  xiv.  p.  175;  voL  xv.  pp.  317,  473;  voL 
xvi.  pp.  265,  507. 

X. 

ANTS.     Page  192. 

Mr.  McCook's  Observations  are  summarized  in  Na- 
ture,, vol.  xvii.  p.  433. 


APPENDIX.  321 

XI. 

LIKENESS  OF  THE  APE'S  BBAIN  TO  THE  HUMAN  BRAIN. 
Page  225. 

The  close  resemblance  of  the  brain  of  the  ape  to 
that  of  man,  has  been  held  to  prove  that  the  ape  comes 
next  to  man  in  intelligence.  But  the  facts  bearing  on 
this  suggestion  are  fitted  to  occasion  serious  perplexity 
to  its  upholders.  First  stands  the  resemblance  of  bod- 
ily structure  as  largely  explaining  similarity  of  brain. 
The  results  of  electric  stimulation  of  the  monkey's  brain 
lend  additional  force  to  this  consideration.  Again,  facts 
are  wanting  to  support  the  claim  for  superior  intelli- 
gence in  behalf  of  the  monkey  and  ape.  The  habits 
of  the  ape  in  its  natural  state  afford  little  evidence  of 
an  encouraging  kind.  The  ape  gathers  together  a  few 
sticks  for  a  nest,  in  comparison  with  which  the  work 
of  very  small  birds  presents  marvels  of  architecture. 
And  nest-building  seems  the  highest  evidence  gathered 
from  the  natural  habits  of  the  animal,  when  we  com- 
pare it  with  leaning  the  back  against  a  tree  for  rest,  or 
staunching  the  blood  of  a  wound.  In  the  captive  state 
the  ape  gives  no  such  evidence  of  superior  intelligence 
as  the  similarity  of  its  brain  to  the  human,  would  lead 
us  to  expect,  if  brain  structure  afford  the  test  of  intel- 
lectual power.  Even  after  allowance  has  been  made 
for  sudden  transition  from  the  wild  state  to  the  cap- 
tive, the  evidence  of  capability  does  not  appear  which 
the  theory  requires.  The  highest  results  reached  by 
training  monkeys,  do  not  support  a  claim  for  intellec- 
tual superiority.  These  are  mainly  forms  of  mimicry, 
generally  inferior  to  the  efforts  of  some  other  animals. 


322  APPENDIX. 

Add  to  these  considerations  the  evidence  as  to  the  sin- 
gular intelligence  shown  by  ants,  and  the  theory  which 
measures  intellect  by  brain  structure  is  placed  at  a 
great  disadvantage.  Whether  science  may  not  ere 
long  point  to  some  theory  of  mind  connected  with 
animal  existence  must  be  matter  of  uncertainty.  If, 
however,  the  easy  and  familiar  operations  of  our  own 
intelligence  are  analyzed  and  classified;  and  if  a  state- 
ment of  the  ascertained  functions  of  the  brain  is  laid 
alongside,  it  will  appear  that  nothing  known  to  us  in 
the  action  of  brain,  can  supply  a  science  of  the  opera- 
tions of  the  human  mind. 


xn 

THE  LARGE  SIZED  OB  MULTIPOLAR  CELLS.     Page  257. 

On  the  functions  of  the  large  sized  cells,  it  seems 
desirable  to  add  a  few  words  as  to  the  direction  in 
which  evidence  as  to  their  functions  actually  points. 
For  this  purpose,  a  further  quotation  is  desirable,  re- 
ferring to  the  number  of  fibres  or  processes  passing 
off  from  these  large  cells,  distinguishing  those  which 
branch  out  into  a  fine  net-work,  and  those  which  pass 
directly  to  a  nerve  fibre.  "  One  at  least  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  a  multipolar  nerve  cell  does  not  branch,  but 
becomes  directly  continuous  with  a  nerve  fibre,  and 
has  been  named  the  axial-cylinder  process." — Profes- 
sor Turner's  Human  Anatomy,  i.  201.  This  taken  with 
the  facts  given  in  Lecture  VII,  seems  to  favor  the  con- 
clusions, (1)  that  the  large  cell  spreads  nerve  energy 
through  the  tissue  of  the  brain,  while  each  has  at  least 


APPENDIX.  323 

one  direct  line  of  communication  with  the  system  of 
nerve  fibres;  (2)  that  the  large  cell  has  intimate  and 
extended  relations  with  the  motor  system. 


XHL 

THE  CONCEPTION  OP  DUTY.     Page  273. 

"Duty!  Thou  great,  thou  exalted  name!  Won- 
drous thought  that  workest  neither  by  fond  insinua- 
tion, flattery,  nor  by  any  threat,  but  by  merely  holding 
up  thy  naked  law  in  the  soul,  and  so  extorting  for  thy- 
self always  reverence,  if  not  always  obedience, — before 
whom  all  appetites  are  dumb,  however  secretly  they 
rebel, — whence  thy  original?" — KANT'S  Critique  of  Prac- 
tical Reason. 


530  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK, 

OCTOBER,  1880. 


NEW   BOOKS 


AND  NEW  EDITIONS  OF  IMPORTANT   BOOKS, 

PUBLISHED   BY 

ROBERT  CARTER  &  BROTHERS. 


%*  Any  Book  in  this  Catalogue,  not  too  large  to  go  by  mail,  will  be  sent  postage 
prepaid,  on  receipt  of  the  price. 


The  End  Of  a  Coil.    A  Story.    By  the  author  of  the  "  Wide  Wide 
World."    717pp.    $1.75. 

My  Desire.    A  Tale.    By  the  author  of  the  "  Wide  Wide  World." 
$1.75. 

Christie's  Old  Organ,  Saved  at  Sea,  and  Little  Faith. 

In  one  volume.    $1.00. 

Christ   and   His   Religion.      By  Rev.  John  Reid,  author  of 
"  Voices  of  the  Soul,"  &c.    $1.50. 

The  Sun,  Moon,  and  Stars.    By  Agnes  Gilberne.    ^Mustrated. 
12mo.    $1.50. 

The   Gentle   Heart.     By  Rev.  Alex.   Macleod,  D.D.,  author  of 
"  Wonderful  Lamp,"  &c.    $1.25. 

The  Cup  of   Consolation ;   or,  Bright  Messages  for  the  Siek- 
Bed.    $1.25. 

In  Christo.    By  J.  R.  Macduff,  D.D. 

Family  Prayers.    By  J.  Oswald  Dykes,  D.D. 

Voices  of  Hope  and  Gladness.    By  Ray  Palmer,  D.D   $1.50. 

Modern   Scottish   Pulpit.      Sermons   by    Scottish    Ministers. 
8vo.    $1.50. 

*  Murdock's  Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  History.    A  cheap 
edition.    Three  volumes  in  one.     1,461  pp.     $3.00. 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 


Nora  Crena.    By  L.  T.  Meade.    $1.25. 

Andrew  Harvey's  Wife.    By  L.  T.  Meade.    $1.25. 

*  Pool's  Annotations.    3  vols.   Royal  8vo.   3,077  pages.    In  cloth. 

Price,  $7.50.    (Half  the  former  price.) 

"  Pool's  Annotations  are  sound,  clear,  and  sensible;  and,  taking  for  all  in  all,  I 
place  him  at  the  head  of  English  commentators  on  the  whole  Bible."  —  Rev.  J.  C.  Ryle. 

*  Matthew  Henry's  Commentary  on  the  Bible.    5  vols., 

quarto.    (Sheep,  $20.00.)    Cloth,  $15.00.    Another  edition  in  9  vols., 
octavo.    Cloth,  $20.00. 

Rev.  C.  H.  Spurgeon  says:  "First  among  the  mighty  for  general  usefulness  we 
are  bound  to  mention  the  man  whose  name  is  a  household  word,—  Matthew  Henry. 
He  is  most  pious  and  pithy,  sound  and  sensible,  suggestive  and  sober,  terse  and 
trustworthy.  ...  I  venture  to  say  that  no  better  investment  can  be  made  by  a 
minister  than  that  peerless  exposition." 

*  Dr.  McCosh's  Works.     New  and  neat  edition  (reduced  from 

$15.00).    6  vols.,  8vo.,  uniform,  $10.00.     Comprising  :  — 

1.  DIVINE  GOVERNMENT.  8.  THB  INTUITIONS  OF  THE  MIND. 

2.  TYPICAL  FORMS.  4.  DEFENCE  OP  FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTH. 

5.  THE  SCOTTISH  PHILOSOPHY. 

Any  volume  sold  separately  at  $2.00. 

"Thousands  of  earnest,  thoughtful  men  have  found  treasures  of  argument,  Illus- 
tration, and  learning  in  these  pages,  with  which  their  minds  and  hearts  have  been 
enriched  and  fortified  for  better  work  and  wider  influences."  —  N.  Y.  Observer. 

DR.  McCosH's  LOGIC.    12mo $1.50 

CHRISTIANITY  AND  POSITIVISM.    12mo     .    .        1.75 

*  Dr.  Merle  D'Aubigne's  History.    13  vols.,  uniform,  $12.50, 

viz.  :  — 

*  HISTORY    OP   THE    REFORMATION    IN    THE    SIXTEENTH    CENTURY. 

5  vols.    Brown  cloth.    In  a  box.    $4.50. 

*  fflSTORY   OF   THE  REFORMATION   IN   THE    TlME    OF   CALVIN.       8   VOlS. 

Brown  cloth.    In  a  box.    Reduced  from  $16.00  to  $8.00. 

"The  work  is  now  complete;  and  these  later  volumes,  together  with  the  original 
five,  form  a  library  relating  to  the  Reformation  of  incalculable  value  and  of  intense 
interest  The  pen  of  this  master  of  history  gave  a  charm  to  every  thing  that  h» 
touched. -AT.  Y.  Observer. 


ROBERT  CARTER  &+  BROTHERS. 


Guide  to  Family  Devotion.  By  the  Rev.  Alexander  Fletcher, 
D.D.  Royal  quarto,  with  10  steel  plates  (half  morocco,  §7.50;  Tur- 
key morocco,  $12.00),  cloth,  gilt,  and  gilt  edges,  $5.00. 

"  The  more  we  look  over  the  volume  the  more  we  admire  It,  and  the  more 
heartily  feel  to  commend  it  to  families  and  devout  Christians.  It  is  emphatically  a 
book  of  devotion,  from  the  standpoint  of  an  intelligent,  broad-minded  Christian 
minister,  who  has  here  expressed  many  of  the  deepest  emotions  and  wants  of  the 
Boul.  The  selections  of  Scripture  and  the  hymns  are  all  admirably  adapted  to  in- 
crease devotion ;  and  the  prayers  are  such  as  can  but  aid  the  suppliant,  even  when 
hot  uttered  from  his  precise  standpoint,  and  are  especially  valuable  to  many  heads 
of  families  who  find  it  difficult  to  frame  words  for  themselves  in  conducting  family 
Worship."  — Journal  and  Messenger. 

The  A.  Li.  O.  E.  Library.    In  55  vols.,  18mo,  in  a  neat  wooden 
case,  $40.00. 

"  All  these  stories  have  the  charm  and  pure  Christian  character  which  have 
made  the  name  of  A.  L.  O.  E.  dear  to  thousands  of  homes."  —  Lutheran. 

"  The  writings  of  this  author  have  become  a  standard,  and  the  mystic  imprint, 
A.  L.  O.  E.,  is  ample  assurance  that  the  truth  of  the  Gospel  is  beneath."  — 
Episcopalian. 

Bickersteth  (Rev.  E.  H.)«  Yesterday,  To-day,  and  Forever. 
A  Poem.  Pocket  edition,  .50 ;  16mo,  $1.00 ;  12mo,  $1.50. 

"If  any  poem  is  destined  to  endure  in  the  companionship  of  Milton's  hitherto 
matchless  epic,  we  believe  it  will  be  'Yesterday,  To-day,  and  Forever.'  "  —  Lw 
don  Globe. 

Butler  (Rev.  William  Archer).  Sermons.  2  vols.,  $2.50. 
Lectures  on  Ancient  Philosophy.  2  vols.,  $2.50. 

"  A  few  weeks  ago  we  spoke  of  the  reprinting,  by  Carter  &  Brothers,  of  the  Ser- 
mons of  Archer  Butler,  a  body  of  preaching  so  strong  and  massive  as  to  be  really 
wonderful.  The  'Lectures  on  Ancient  Philosophy'  that  are  now  added,  were  de- 
livered at  the  University  of  Dublin,  about  the  year  1840,  when  the  author  was 
scarcely  thirty  years  old."  —  Watchman. 

The  Book  and  Its  Story.    12mo.    $1.50. 

Fresh    Leaves  from   the  Book  and  Its  Story.     12mo. 

$1.50. 

"  Let  any  one  who  is  inclined  to  think  the  bare  Scriptures  '  dry '  reading,  peruse 
them  in  connection  with  a  volume  like  this,  and  they  will  be  clothed  to  him  with  a 
new  life.  He  will  learn  how  the  separate  books  of  the  Bible  were,  as  it  were,  built 
into  one  another,  and  made  to  form  a  glorious  whole :  he  will  read  intelligently 
and  with  deep  Interest."  —  Keystone. 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 


Bonar  (Hora  tills,  D.D.).     Hymns  of  Faith  and  Hope.    3  vols., 
ISiuo. 


Bible  Thoughts  and  Themes.    G  vols.    12mo,  viz.  :  — 
GENESIS   ......    $2.00    ACTS,  &c  .......    $2  00 

OLD  TESTAMENT  .    .    .      2.00    LESSER  EPISTLES  .    .    .      200 
GOSPELS  ......      2.00    REVELATION  .....      2  00 

"  With  no  attempt  at  exposition,  except  what  is  found  in  comparing  Scripture 
with  Scripture,  ami  drawing  illustrations  and  means  of  impressing  rich  gospel 
truth  from  almost  every  source,  the  author  proceeds  with  theme  upon  theme,  giv- 
ing floods  of  edifying  and  comforting  light  lYom  beginning  to  end.  It  is  a  good 
book  for  the  private  Christian  to  have  on  his  table  for  frequent  use,  and  ministers 
will  often  find  in  it  that  which  will  be  suggestive  and  useful."  —  Christian  In* 
$tmctor. 

WAY  OF  PEACE    .    .     $0.50    THE  RENT  VEIL  .....  §1.25 

WAY  OF  HOLINESS  .     .     .60    MY  OLD  LETTERS     ....    2.00 

NIGHT  OF  WEEPING      .    .50    HYMNS  OF  THE  NATIVITY,  gilt,    1.00 

VIoRNiNG  OF  JOY     .     .    .60    THE  CHRIST  OF  GOD    .    .    .    1.25 

FOLLOW  THE  LAMB  .    .    .40    TRUTH  AND  ERROR  .....  60 

THE  EVERLASTING  RIGHTEOUSNESS    ....    §0.60 

Chalmers  (Thomas,  D.D.).    Sermons.    2  vols.  in  one.    $300. 
Cowper  (Win.).    The  Task.    Illustrated  by  Birket  Foster.    §3.50. 

Cuyter  (Rev.  T.  L.). 

POINTED  PAPERS   ...........  $  1.50 

THOUGHT  HIVES    ...........  1.50 

EMPTY  CRIB  .............  1.00 

••  Dr.  Cuyler  holds  steadily  the  position  which  he  reached  years  ago,  as  the  best 
writer  of  pointed,  racy,  religious  articles  in  our  country."  —  Presbyterian. 

Dick  (John,  D.D.).    Lectures  on  Theology.    8vo.    §3.00. 

"  It  is,  as  a  whole,  superior  to  any  other  system  of  theology  in  our  language."  ' 
Christian  Journal. 

Dicksoii  (Rev.  Alexander,  D.D.). 

ALL  ABOUT  JESUS     .....    .....    $2.00 

BEAUTY  FOR  ASHES  ..........      2.00 

"His  book  is  a  '  bundle  of  myrrh,'  and  will  be  specially  enjoyed  by  those  who 
are  in  trouble."  —  Rev.  Dr.  W.  M.  Taylor. 

"Luscious  as  a  honeycomb  with  sweetness  drawn  from  God's  word."  —  /?«». 
Dr.  Cuyler. 


ROBERT  CARTER  &  BROTHERS.        5 

Dykes  (Oswald,  D.D.),  on  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

3  vols.,  $3.00. 

ABRAHAM,  THE  FRIEND  OF  GOD $1.50 

"  We  are  ever  and  anon  surprised  by  some  new  view  or  fresh  thought  that 
never  had  occurred  to  us  in  this  connection.  The  book  (Abraham)  is  a  thoughtful, 
scholarly  production,  in  vigorous  English."  —  AT.  Christian  Advocate, 

*  Edwards  (Jonathan).    Works.    In  4  vols.,  octavo.    $6.00. 

"  I  consider  Jonathan  Edwards  the  greatest  of  the  sons  of  men."  —  Robert  Hall. 

Fraser  (Rev.  Donald).    Synoptical  Lectures  on  the  Books  of  the 

Bible.     3  vols.,  $0.00. 

"  Dr.  Fraser  has  observed,  like  many  others  of  us,  the  mischief  which  results 
from  cutting  the  Bible  into  fragments,  and  using  it  piecemeal.  In  these  volumes 
he  discourses  of  the  Bible  at  large,  indicates  the  scope  of  each  book,  and  furnishes 
a  brief  digest  of  its  contents.  The  design  was  in  itself  most  laudable,  and  it  has 
been  well  carried  out."  —  Spurgeon. 

Green  (Prof.  Wm.  Henry,  D.D.).    The  Argument  of  the  Book 
of  Job  Unfolded.     12ino.     $1.75. 

"  That  ancient  composition  so  marvellous  in  beauty,  and  so  rich  in  philosophy, 
is  here  treated  in  a  thoroughly  analytical  manner,  and  new  depths  and  grander 
proportions  of  the  divine  original  portrayed.  It  is  a  book  to  stimulate  research." 
—  Methodist  Recorder. 

Guthrie  (Thomas,  D.D.).    Life  and  Works.     11  vols.    $15.00. 

"  His  pages  glow  with  the  deep  piety,  the  Scriptural  beauty,  the  rich  imagery, 
and  the  tender  pathos  which  breathed  from  his  lips."  —  N.  Y.  Observer. 

Hamilton  (James,  D.D.).    Select  Works.    4  vols.   $5.00.    Con- 

taining  The  Royal  Preacher ;    Mount  of  Olives  ;   Pearl  of  Parables  ; 

Lamp  and  Lantern ;  Great  Biography  ;   Harp  on  the  Willows  ;  Lake 

of  Galilee  ;  Emblems  from  Eden  ;  Life  in  Earnest. 

"  Those  familiar  with  the  works  of  Dr.  Hamilton  will  perceive  that  this  set  ot 
volumes  contains  the  choice  gold  from  the  author's  mine.  They  are  put  up  in  a 
neat  box,  and  sold  at  the  low  price  of  $5  for  the  set."  —  Interior. 

Hamlin  (Cyrus).    Among  the  Turks.    12mo.    $1.50. 
Hanna  (Rev.  William,  D.D.).    Life  of  Christ.    3  vols.    12rao. 
$4.50. 

"  We  can  heartily  commend  the  '  Life  of  our  Lord,'  by  Dr.  Hanna."—  Congre- 
gational Quarterly. 

"  Besides  the  beauty  of  the  style  and  the  careful  scholarship  which  mark  these 
volumes,  we  cannot  too  warmly  commend  them  for  their  deep  piety  and  hearty 
enforcement  of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity."  —  N.  Y.  Obterver. 


BOOKS  PUBLISHED  BY 


Hill  (George).    Lectures  on  Divinity.    8vo.    §2.60. 

"  The  candor  and  fairness  of  this  author  are  remarkable,  an  unfailing  indica- 
tion of  real  greatness."  —  Christian  Mirror. 

Hodge  (Charles,  D.D.).    Commentaries. 

ON  ROMANS.     12mo §1.75 

ON  EPIIESIANS.     12mo 1.75 

ON  CORINTHIANS.    2  vols.    12mo 3.50 

Rev.  C.  H.  Spurgeon  says:  "Most  valuable.    With  no  writer  do  we  more  fully 

agree.    The  more  we  use  Hodge,  the  more  we  value  him.    This  applies  to  all  his 

Commentaries." 

Hodge  (Rev.  A.  A.,  D.D.).    Outlines  of  Theology.    Revised  and 

Enlarged  Edition.     8vo.    §3.00. 

"  At  its  first  publication  in  1860,  this  work  attracted  much  attention,  and  ever 
since  it  has  had  a  large  sale,  and  been  carefully  studied  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Great  Britain.  It  has  been  translated  into  Welsh  and  modern  Greek,  and  has 
been  used  as  a  text-book  in  several  theological  schools.  Prepared  originally  in 
good  part  from  notes  taken  by  the  author  from  his  distinguished  father's  lectures, 
with  the  assistance  of  standard  theological  writers,  after  fourteen  years  of  service 
as  a  theological  instructor,  he  has,  with  increased  knowledge  and  experience  as  a 
teacher,  embodied  in  this  new  and  enlarged  edition  not  only  the  treasures  of  the 
volume  as  it  first  appeared,  but  the  rich  results  of  his  additional  studies  and  inves- 
tigations. This  new  edition  contains  fifty  per  cent  more  of  matter  than  the  former 
one.  Two  chapters  have  been  dropped,  and  five  new  ones  have  been  added."-* 
Presbyterian  Banner. 

Holt  (Emily  Sarah).    Historical  Tale* 

ISOULT  BARRY.    12mo §1.50 

ROBIN  TREMAYNE.    12mo 1.50 

THE  WELL  IN  THE  DESERT.    16mo 1.25 

ASHCLIFFE  HALL.    16mo 1.25 

VERENA;  A  TALE.     12mo 1.50 

THE  WHITE  ROSE  OF  LANGLEY.    12mo     ....    1.50 

IMOGEN.    12mo 1-50 

CLARE  AVERY.    12mo 1.50 

LETTICE  EDEN.    12mo 1-50 

FOR  THE  MASTER'S  SAKE.    16mo 1.00 

MARGERY'S  SON.     12mo 1-50 

LADY  SYBIL'S  CHOICE.    12mo 1-50 

THE  MAIDEN'S  LODGE.    12mo 1.25 

"  Whether  it  is  regarded  in  its  historical  or  its  religious  aspect,  '  Isoult  Barry  of 
Wynscote '  is  the  finest  contribution  to  English  literature,  of  its  peculiar  class, 
which  has  been  made  in  the  present  century."  —  American  Baptiit. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWE! 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  imj 


V 


JAN    b'65-9AI 


LD  2lA-50m-ll,I6S 
(D3279slO)476B 


*Ct 


General  Library     . 
University  of  Califorms 
Berkeley 


22562 


